Skin ligaments: regional distribution and variation in morphology

Skin ligaments (SL) (L. retinacula cutis) are present extensively in the face, hands, feet, and in breast tissue, but have seldom been reported elsewhere in the body. The traditional histological view of the subcutaneous region is that it comprises a matrix of loose connective tissue devoid of fibrous specializations. The purpose of this study was to determine the structure and distribution of skin ligaments. Eight embalmed cadavers (3 males, 5 females, 69-90 years of age) were used in this study. Tissue was prepared using the E12 plastination technique. Macroscopic and microscopic examination demonstrated the widespread presence in the limbs and most of the rest of the body of fibrous strands linking the base of the dermis and the superficial fibers of the underlying deep fascia. The morphology and distribution of these skin ligaments were similar in the individuals examined. Variations in the structure of the skin ligaments depended on the presence of underlying muscle, neurovascular bundles, intermuscular septa and adipose tissue. We conclude that skin ligaments are complex fibrous structures that are present over most of the body. They form an extensive peripheral network in the subcutaneous fat. These 'ligaments' seem to provide an anchorage of skin to deep fascia that is flexible and yet resistant to mechanical loading from multi-directional forces. The use of the E12 plastination technique coupled with fluorescent confocal microscopy has been of benefit in visualizing and delineating SLs from other soft tissue structures in three planes.     

Potential of P40 plastination for morphometric hip measurements

Total hip replacement has become one of the most successful surgical operations over the past 25 years. The duration of a total hip prosthesis depends on primary stability, and many studies have tried precisely to evaluate hip joint morphology to obtain excellent contact between bone and prosthetic component. This study performed a morphometric analysis of the human hip joint using, for the first time, the P40 plastination procedure. We cut 42 hip joint compounds into slices 3 mm thick; for exact distance measuring the sections were scanned into the computer. The following mean measurements for hip geometry were obtained: vertical diameter of acetabulum 4.894±0.274 cm, depth of acetabulum 1.643±0.245 cm, femoral head radius 2.268±0.149 cm, femoral neck length 4.3670±0.528 cm, acetabular perimeter 6.711±0.434 cm, vertical diameter of labrum acetabulare 4.759±0.476 cm, depth of labrum acetabulare 2.599±0.395 cm, sum of femoral head and neck lengths 6.759±0.550 cm, hip axis length 11.859±1.007 cm, femoral neck axis length 10.12±0.555 cm, and femoral neck diameter 3.349±0.276 cm. All of these data reveal a significant gender difference. Our aim was to indicate an unconventional and new method of gaining morphometric hip data by using plastination.     

Vein of Galen aneurysm: anatomical study of an adult autopsy case

We present a case of vein of Galen aneurysmal malformation in an adult, the rupture of which caused a fatal hemorrhage. Macroscopic examination, together with plastination of specimen with S10, and microscopic examination showed connection of the aneurysm with the right thalamoperforating artery and, bilaterally, with the posterior choroidal and mesencephalic arteries. Histology also showed thinning of the aneurysmal wall, due to marked reduction of the muscular media at the point of rupture, and its connection with an arteriovenous malformation of the left thalamus. A review of the anatomy of the Galenic system shows that the medullary veins curve at an acute angle to form the paired internal cerebral veins, with a sudden change in flow and that, from late fetal life, the vein of Galen curves around the splenium to enter the straight sinus at an angle opposing its flow. Based on anatomical study and a review of the literature, we suggest that aneurysmatic dilatation of the vein of Galen may result from a combination of pathological and predisposing anatomical factors. The anatomical characteristics of the origin of the internal cerebral veins and of the entry of the vein of Galen into the straight sinus make particularly susceptible to the hemodynamic effects of arteriovenous shunts the vein of Galen itself, which is situated in the cisterna ambiens, an anatomical space that does not impede its enlargement.     

两种塑化材料对断层解剖标本制作效果的比较

目的:研究2种不同塑化材料制作的断层解剖标本的差异.方法:分别采用硅橡胶技术和聚酯共聚体技术制备人体断层标本,并进行比较.结果:硅橡胶技术所制备的标本不透明;聚酯共聚体技术制备的断层解剖标本半透明.硅橡胶材料制备的断层标本不适于研究组织纤维走向和筋膜结构,适用于标本防腐保存;聚酯共聚体材料制备的断层标本可以清晰地显示组织的纤维走向和筋膜结构,同时标本的厚度均匀,表面平滑,硬度较高.结论:聚酯共聚体材料制备的断层标本优于硅橡胶材料,此方法将会发展成为断层解剖学研究的常用技术.     

Arterial anatomy of the hallucal sesamoids

The aim of this study was to analyze the arterial supply of the sesamoid bones of the hallux. Twenty‐two feet from adult cadavers were injected with epoxide resin or an acrylic polymer in methyl methacrylate (Acrifix®) and subsequently processed by two slice plastination methods and the enzyme maceration technique. Afterwards, the arterial supply of the sesamoid bones was studied. The first plantar metatarsal artery provided a medial branch to the medial sesamoid bone. The main branch of the first plantar metatarsal artery continued its course distally along the lateral side of the lateral sesamoid and supplied it. The supplying arteries penetrated the sesamoid bones on the proximal, plantar, and distal sides. The analysis and cataloging of the microvascular anatomy of the sesamoids revealed the first plantar metatarsal artery as the main arterial source to the medial and lateral sesamoid bones. In addition, the first plantar metatarsal artery ran along the lateral plantar side of the lateral sesamoid bone, suggesting that this artery is at increased risk during soft‐tissue procedures such as hallux valgus surgery. Clin. Anat. 22:755–760, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Three-dimensional reconstruction of the ankle by means of ultrathin slice plastination

Computerized reconstruction of anatomical structures is becoming very useful for developing anatomical teaching modules and animations. Although databases exist consisting of serial sections derived from frozen cadaver material, plastination represents an alternate method for developing anatomical data useful for computerized reconstruction. Plastination is used as an excellent tool for studying different anatomical and clinical questions. The sheet plastination technique is unique because it offers the possibility to produce transparent slices series, which can easily be processed morphometrically. The purpose of this study was to describe a method for developing a computerized model of the human ankle using plastinated slices. This method could be applied to reconstruct any desired region of the human body.A human ankle was obtained, plastinated, sectioned, and subjected to 3D computerized reconstruction using WinSURF modeling system (SURFdriver Software). Qualitative observations revealed that the morphological features of the model were consistent with those displayed by typical cadaveric specimens. Morphometric analysis indicated that the model did not significantly differ from a sample of cadaveric specimens. These data support the use of plastinates for generating tissues sections useful for 3D computerized modeling.     

生物塑化技术在形态学研究中的应用

用生物塑化技术进行了人体颅底部蝶鞍、斜坡区的生物塑化研究，取得了预期的结果。生物塑化包括多项技术，如硅橡胶浸渍技术、多聚乳胶包埋技术、环氧树酯透明技术以及多聚树酯脑组织切片技术等。对生物标本进行塑化处理，特别是对软组织、含水量高的组织和器官，如心、肝、肺、肾、肌、关节等进行包埋，可使标本硬化、透明，可整体观察，也可制作切片。生物塑化的基本原理是选用液态高分子多聚化合物单体作为塑化剂，替代组织细胞内的水份，进行聚合固化，达到组织塑化的目的。基本步骤可分为固定、脱水、真空浸渍和硬化处理四步，其中真空浸渍为关键步骤，浸渍过程中的压力调节至关重要。     

E12 sheet plastination: Techniques and applications

Plastination is an anatomical technique that consists of replacing the liquids and fat of specimens by reactive polymers through forced impregnation in a vacuum. These are then polymerized to achieve the final result. E12 sheet plastination involves epoxy resin impregnation of thin (2–4 mm) and ultra‐thin (<2 mm) tissue sheets, producing dry, transparent, odorless, non‐toxic and long‐lasting sheets. E12 sheet plastination techniques were reviewed using MEDLINE, EMBASE and SciELO databases, and manual searches. After searching, 616 records were found using the online and manual searches (MEDLINE, n: 207; EMBASE, n: 346; SciELO, n: 44; Manual search: 23). Finally, 96 records were included in this review (after duplicates and articles unrelated to the subject were excluded). The aim of this work was to review the E12 sheet plastination technique, searching for articles concerning views of it, identifying the different variants implemented by researchers since its creation by Gunther von Hagens, and to identify its applications from teaching and research in anatomy to morphological sciences. Clin. Anat. 31:742–756, 2018. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.