Oxidative stress induced in live HeLa cells by menadione (2-methyl-1,4-napthaquinone) was studied in real time by scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM). The hydrophobic molecule menadione diffuses through a living cell membrane where it is toxic to the cell. However, in the cell it is conjugated with glutathione to form thiodione. Thiodione is then recognized and transported across the cell membrane via the ATP-driven MRP1 pump. In the extracellular environment, thiodione was detected by the SECM tip at levels of 140, 70, and 35 µM upon exposure of the cells to menadione concentrations of 500, 250, and 125 µM, respectively. With the aid of finite element modeling, the kinetics of thiodione transport was determined to be 1.6 × 10
-7 m/s, about 10 times faster than menadione uptake. Selective inhibition of these MRP1 pumps inside live HeLa cells by MK571 produced a lower thiodione concentration of 50 µM in presence of 500 µM menadione and 50 µM MK571. A similar reduced (50% drop) thiodione efflux was observed in the presence of monoclonal antibody QCRL-4, a selective blocking agent of the MRP1 pumps. The reduced thiodione flux confirmed that thiodione was transported by MRP1, and that glutathione is an essential substrate for MRP1-mediated transport. This finding demonstrates the usefulness of SECM in quantitative studies of MRP1 inhibitors and suggests that monoclonal antibodies can be a useful tool in inhibiting the transport of these MDR pumps, and thereby aiding in overcoming multidrug resistance.Multidrug resistance (MDR) pumps play a critical role in the detoxification pathway and cell survival under the oxidative stress caused by quinone or quinone-based chemotherapeutic drugs. Among the MDR pumps, the multidrug resistance protein (MRP1) pump is known to pump a broad variety of organic anions out of cells (
1). According to the accepted model, MRP1 pumps out glutathione-S-conjugates (GS-conjugates), oxidized glutathione (GSSH), and reduced glutathione (GSH) as well as the unmodified drugs in the presence of physiological concentration of GSH; for example vincristine or daunorubicin are transported out of the cells by MRP1 in unmodified form in the presence of GSH (
2). The cytotoxicity of a particular drug also depends on the types of MDR pumps and whether they are overexpressed in a cell under oxidative stress. For example, MRP pumps are known to be highly expressed in colon, breast and ovarian cancer cells whereas P-glycoprotein (Pgp) pumps are widely expressed in colon, renal and liver cancer cells but poorly expressed in breast, lung, and ovarian tumors (
3). Hence, there are differences between the oxidative stress response of one type of cell to another and this is significant when comparing the effects of xenobiotics being added to different cells. In rat platelets, 85% intracellular GSH was reported to deplete as menadione-GSH conjugate, whereas in hepatocytes, 75% of intracellular GSH was depleted by menadione due to formation of GSSG (
4).Depending on their modifications, quinones induce cytotoxicity in living cells by different pathways (
4). A recycler such as 2,3-dimethoxy-1,4-napthaquinone exhibits oxidative stress purely by redox cycling, forming semiquinones, superoxide and hydroxyl radicals; thus depleting the reduced glutathione or GSH pool present inside the cell by forming oxidized glutathione or GSSH. A second type of quinone, an arylator such as 1,4-benzoquinone, exhibits cytotoxicity through arylation, forming GS-conjugates and thus depleting the intracellular GSH. Quinone-based oxidative stress in living cells differs from oxidative stress based on extracellularly administered hydrogen peroxide. The later agent is capable of inducing lipid peroxidation and subsequently rupturing the cell membrane before even entering the cell. Other types of quinone such as menadione (2-methoxy-1,4-napthaquinone) can act as both a redox cycler and arylator. Because of its hydrophobicity, menadione can pass through an intact cell membrane and induce oxidative stress by producing superoxide and hydroxyl radical. As part of the cells defense against such oxidative stress, GSH present inside the cell subsequently undergoes sacrificial nucleophilic addition or arylation with menadione in presence of the GS-transferase enzyme, forming menadione-S-glutathione (thiodione). However, the conjugate retains the ability to carry out redox recycling to form superoxide and hydroxyl radical, and this is not, by itself, an effective detoxification pathway unless the thiodione has been recognized by GS-X or MDR pumps as a substrate and pumped out of the cell by an ATP-driven process () (
5–
10).
Open in a separate windowSchematic diagram of cellular response to menadione in the presence or absence of MRP1 blocker MK571.MRP1 transports both endogenous substrates such as glutathione, steroids, LTC
4, LTD
4, LTE
4 as well as substrates like doxorubicin, daunorubicin, GS-conjugates, and vinblastine. However, LTC
4 has the highest affinity for MRP1 (
2,
6,
9,
11–
15). The inhibition of these MRP1 pumps increases the accumulation of intracellular xenobiotics or their conjugates; which therefore increases the cytotoxicity of the drugs towards the cell. MK571 (5-(3-(2-(7-chloroquinolin-2-yl) ethenyl) phenyl)-8-dimethylcarbamyl-4,6-dithiaoctanoic acid), an LTD
4 receptor antagonist, has been reported to act as competitive inhibitor for MRP1-mediated transport, both for GS-conjugate transport (such as thiodione) as well as for the transport of unconjugated GSH-mediated xenobiotics, such as daunorubicin (
15–
26).To understand mechanistically the function of this MRP1 pump in physiological condition, several immunoblot, immunoprecipitate and immunofluorescence based studies (
27–
35) have been made with MRP1-specific antibodies such as QCRL-1, QCRL-2, QCRL-3, QCRL-4, and QCRL-6. These IgG class antibodies have been developed to recognize a specific sequence of amino acids in the MRP proteins. For example, QCRL-1,-2,-3 recognize 918–924, 617–858, 617–932 amino acid sequences respectively; whereas QCRL-4 and QCRL-6 bind overlapping sequences of 1294–1531 amino acids, -COOH proximal nucleotide binding site (NBD2). Hipfner and coworkers (
27–
30) have used these antibodies to map the topology of this entire transmembrane protein. An inhibitory effect of this antibody has also been reported with the endogenous substrate, LTC
4, whereas QCRL-3 has been reported (
30,
35) to inhibit the photolabeling of MRP1 by LTC
4, proving that the 617–932 sequence is the major substrate binding site. Thus different kinds of antibodies can be used to understand the functionally important domain of the MRP1 pump, especially in terms of binding sites of different xenobiotic substrates and pumping out by an ATP-driven process.Although there have been numerous studies on oxidative stress with different arrays of drugs and xenobiotics on diverse mammalian cell lines, most of them have been done with assays developed on lyzed cells after they were exposed to xenobiotics. Very few quantitative studies have been performed using live intact cells and their response in presence of xenobiotics, and fewer, particularly in terms of determining how transmembrane flux is affected by various antibodies that recognize different epitopes. Most of the immunoblot-based studies with antibodies and MDR pumps used antibodies to detect the pumps qualitatively, but very few studies have been done to demonstrate the blocking of a MRP1 pump efflux with an antibody in the dynamic environment of a live intact cell.In previous studies (
36,
37), we studied this process in yeast and heptablastoma cells with the SECM. In this paper we show that HeLa cells exposed to menadione form the GS-conjugate, which is then pumped into the extracellular environment by ATP-driven MDR pumps. The quantitative estimation of thiodione flux out of the living cells was measured by SECM on a real time basis. The selective blocking by MK571 of these MRP1 pumps present in a live HeLa cell was also demonstrated; thus confirming that thiodione is indeed a substrate for MRP1 pumps and plays an important role in the cellular defense mechanism against quinone-based oxidative stress. In addition, a monoclonal antibody such as QCRL-4 was able to inhibit the thiodione flux under oxidative stress, again demonstrating the relevant function of MRP1.
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