Oligodendrogenesis from neural stem cells: Perspectives for remyelinating strategies

Mobilization of remyelinating cells spontaneously occurs in the adult brain. These cellular resources are specially active after demyelinating episodes in early phases of multiple sclerosis (MS). Indeed, oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) actively proliferate, migrate to and repopulate the lesioned areas. Ultimately, efficient remyelination is accomplished when new oligodendrocytes reinvest nude neuronal axons, restoring the normal properties of impulse conduction. As the disease progresses this fundamental process fails. Multiple causes seem to contribute to such transient decline, including the failure of OPCs to differentiate and enwrap the vulnerable neuronal axons. Regenerative medicine for MS has been mainly centered on the recruitment of endogenous self-repair mechanisms, or on transplantation approaches. The latter commonly involves grafting of neural precursor cells (NPCs) or neural stem cells (NSCs), with myelinogenic potential, in the injured areas. Both strategies require further understanding of the biology of oligodendrocyte differentiation and remyelination. Indeed, the success of transplantation largely depends on the pre-commitment of transplanted NPCs or NSCs into oligodendroglial cell type, while the endogenous differentiation of OPCs needs to be boosted in chronic stages of the disease. Thus, much effort has been focused on finding molecular targets that drive oligodendrocytes commitment and development. The present review explores several aspects of remyelination that must be considered in the design of a cell-based therapy for MS, and explores more deeply the challenge of fostering oligodendrogenesis. In this regard, we discuss herein a tool developed in our research group useful to search novel oligodendrogenic factors and to study oligodendrocyte differentiation in a time- and cost-saving manner.     

Oligomeric proanthocyanidins alleviate hexabromocyclododecane-induced cytotoxicity in HepG2 cells through regulation on ROS formation and mitochondrial pathway

Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), a type of brominated flame retardants (BFR), has become ubiquitous organic contaminants in recent years. However, studies on HBCD toxicity and the related molecular mechanisms are so far limited. The objective of the present study was to investigate the effects of oligomeric proanthocyanidins (OPCs) on cytotoxicity induced by HBCD and the underlying molecular mechanisms. HepG2 cells were treated with HBCD and/or OPCs at different concentrations, and cell viability, cell apoptosis, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, cellular Ca²⁺ level, mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ), cytochrome C (Cyt-c) release, and nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) proteins expression were evaluated. Results showed that HBCD induced toxic effects in HepG2 cells in a concentration-dependent manner. HBCD at high concentrations (40 and 60 μM) caused a significant decrease of cell viability and led to elevated cell apoptosis ratio, intracellular Ca²⁺ level, cytoplasmic Cyt-c level, and ROS production, together with a loss of ΔΨ and mobilization of Nrf2. Pretreatment with OPCs effectively attenuated the cytotoxic effects and ROS production, as well as mitochondrial responses induced by HBCD. Thus, OPCs could alleviate cytotoxicity in HepG2 cells induced by HBCD through regulation on intracellular Ca²⁺ level and ROS formation in a mitochondrial pathway.     

局灶性脑缺血模型大鼠转录因子Olig1的表达变化及其在髓鞘修复中的作用

目的探讨Olig1在局灶性脑缺血后不同时间点的表达变化及其参与髓鞘修复的可能机制。方法线栓法建立大脑中动脉闭塞(middle cerebral artery occlusion,MCAO)模型,使用免疫组化和Western blot的方法观察脑缺血后1d、3d、7d、14d和28d Olig1的表达变化。碱性髓鞘蛋白(myelin basic protein,MBP)是髓鞘的组成成分,用作髓鞘的标志物,检测脑缺血后上述各时间点MBP的表达变化。结果正常大鼠Olig1广泛分布于脑白质和灰质,如皮层、胼胝体和纹状体等区域,典型地沿着神经纤维成束状排列。正常大鼠Olig1主要位于少突胶质细胞的胞浆,脑缺血后Olig1由胞浆移至细胞核。Olig1的表达在脑缺血后1d下降,3d回到正常水平并维持此水平到脑缺血后28d。MBP蛋白表达在脑缺血后1d至28d逐渐下降。结论 Olig1在脑缺血的初期表达下降,抑制了神经的再生,针对Olig1的表达规律进行干预将为脑缺血后髓鞘的修复提供理论依据。     

大鼠少突胶质前体细胞纯化及原代培养的新方法

【摘要】目的 建立简单、高效的少突胶质前体细胞（OPCs）分离培养方法。方法 取出生2天的SD大鼠大脑皮层,分离消化皮层细胞为单细胞悬液,采用A2B5免疫磁珠提纯OPCs进行体外培养,倒置显微镜观察细胞生长状况,并在第7天采用免疫荧光检测OPCs特异性标志A2B5和O4;培养7天后换为OPCs分化培养基诱导OPCs分化,分化培养7天后,免疫荧光法检测成熟少突胶质细胞特异性标志骨髓碱性蛋白（MBP）。结果 培养过程中观察发现,95%以上的细胞具有双极或三级突起的典型形态,免疫荧光显示纯化培养的OPCs 95%以上表达A2B5和O4;分化培养后95%以上的细胞为MBP阳性的少突胶质细胞。结论 采用磁珠法可以获得高纯度的OPCs,并且细胞具有分化为成熟少突胶质细胞的能力。     

一种分离培养少突胶质前体细胞的改进方法

目的:对少突胶质前体细胞的分离培养方法进行改良,为今后细胞移植治疗研究提供基础。方法:在大鼠少突胶质前体细胞分离纯化培养过程中添加不同浓度bFGF(5、10、20 ng/ml),显微镜观察少突胶质前体细胞在体外的生长情况,台盼蓝实验检测细胞存活率和获得率,免疫细胞化学技术进行细胞鉴定,流式细胞术检测细胞纯度。结果:在少突胶质前体细胞培养过程中添加10 ng/ml的bFGF,可明显提高少突胶质前体细胞的产出率和纯度。分离的少突胶质前体细胞呈A2B5、NG2阳性,能进一步分化为成熟少突胶质细胞且表达MBP和O4。结论:在培养中添加适当浓度的bFGF的方法能有效获得高纯度的少突胶质前体细胞。     

Chronic lithium treatment decreases NG2 cell proliferation in rat dentate hilus,amygdala and corpus callosum

An increasing number of investigations suggest volumetric changes and glial pathology in several brain regions of patients with bipolar disorder. Lithium, used in the treatment of this disorder, has been reported to be neuroprotective and increase brain volume. Here we investigate the effect of lithium on the proliferation and survival of glial cells positive for the chondroitin sulphate proteoglycan NG2 (NG2 cells); a continuously dividing cell type implicated in remyelination and suggested to be involved in regulation of neuronal signaling and axonal outgrowth. Adult male rats were treated with lithium for four weeks and injected with the proliferation marker bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) before or at the end of the treatment period. Immunohistochemical analysis of brain sections was performed to estimate the number of newly born (BrdU-labeled) NG2 cells and oligodendrocytes in hippocampus, basolateral nuclei of amygdala and corpus callosum. Lithium significantly decreased the proliferation of NG2 cells in dentate hilus of hippocampus, amygdala and corpus callosum, but not in the molecular layer or the cornu ammonis (CA) regions of hippocampus. The effect was more pronounced in the corpus callosum. No effect of lithium on the survival of newborn cells or the number of newly generated oligodendrocytes could be detected. Our results demonstrate that in both white and gray matter brain regions implicated in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder, chronic lithium treatment significantly decreases the proliferation rate of NG2 cells; the major proliferating cell type of the adult brain.     

Bone metastasis: Interaction between cancer cells and bone microenvironment

BackgroundBone is one of the most common target organs for cancer metastasis, especially in patients with advanced breast and prostate cancers. Despite recent advances in therapeutic approaches, bone metastases remain incurable and produce multiple complications called skeletal-related events, including hypercalcemia, pathological fractures, spinal compression, and bone pain, which are associated with poor prognosis.HighlightAlthough the precise mechanisms are yet to be fully elucidated, accumulating evidence suggests that bone provides a favorable microenvironment that enables circulating cancer cells to home, proliferate, and colonize, resulting in the formation of metastasis. Cancer cells that metastasize to bone also possess unique features, enabling them to utilize the bone microenvironment. Thus, communication between cancer cells and bone is believed to be critical for the development and progression of bone metastases.ConclusionContinued studies are warranted to understand the molecular mechanisms underlying bone metastases and to develop mechanism-based and effective therapeutic interventions.     

The neurodegenerative process in a neurotoxic rat model and in patients with Huntington's disease: histopathological parallels and differences

Although Huntington's disease (HD) occurs only in humans, the use of animal models is crucial for HD research. New genetic models may provide novel insights into HD pathogenesis, but their relevance to human HD is problematic, particularly owing to a lower number of typically degenerated and dying striatal neurons and consequent insignificant reactive gliosis. Hence, neurotoxin-induced animal models are widely used for histopathological studies. Unlike in humans, the neurodegenerative process (NDP) of the HD phenotype develops very fast after the application of quinolinic acid (QA). For that reason, we compared three groups of rats in more advanced stages (1–12 months) of the QA lesion with 3 representative HD cases of varying length and grade. The outcomes of our long-term histological study indicate that significant parallels may be drawn between HD autopsies and QA-lesioned rat brains (particularly between post-lesional months 3 and 9) in relation to (1) the progression of morphological changes related to the neuronal degeneration, primarily the rarefaction of neuropil affecting the density as well as the character of synapses, resulting in severe striatal atrophy and (2) the participation of oligodendrocytes in reparative gliosis. Conversely, the development and character of reactive astrogliosis is principally conditioned by the severity of striatal NDP in the context of neuron–glia relationship. Despite the above-described differences, morphological patterns in which the components of striatal parenchyma react to the progression of NDP are similar in both human and rat brains. Our study specifies the possibilities of interpreting the morphological findings gained from the QA-induced animal model of HD in relation to HD post-mortem specimens.     

Is neuronal communication with NG2 cells synaptic or extrasynaptic?

NG2-expressing glial cells (NG2 cells) represent a major pool of progenitors able to generate myelinating oligodendrocytes, and perhaps astrocytes and neurones, in the postnatal brain. In the last decade, it has been demonstrated that NG2 cells receive functional glutamatergic and GABAergic synapses mediating fast synaptic transmission in different brain regions. However, several controversies exist in this field. While two classes of NG2 cells have been defined by the presence or absence of Na(+) channels, action potential firing and neuronal input, other studies suggest that all NG2 cells possess Na(+) conductances and are the target of quantal neuronal release, but are unable to trigger action potential firing. Here we bring new evidence supporting the idea that the level of expression of Na(+) conductances is not a criterion to discriminate NG2 cell subpopulations in the somatosensory cortex. Surprisingly, recent reports demonstrated that NG2 cells detect quantal glutamate release from unmyelinated axons in white matter regions. Yet, it is difficult from these studies to establish whether axonal vesicular release in white matter occurs at genuine synaptic junctions or at ectopic release sites. In addition, we recently reported a new mode of extrasynaptic communication between neurones and NG2 cells that relies on pure GABA spillover and does not require GABAergic synaptic input. This review discusses the properties of quantal neuronal release onto NG2 cells and gives an extended overview of potential extrasynaptic modes of transmission, from ectopic to diffuse volume transmission, between neurones and NG2 cells in the brain.