Scatter correction in scintigraphy: the state of the art

In scintigraphy, the detection of scattered photons degrades both visual image analysis and quantitative accuracy. Many methods have been proposed and are still under investigation to cope with scattered photons. The main features of the problem of scattering in radionuclide imaging are presented first, to provide a sound foundation for a critical review of the existing scatter correction techniques. These are described using a classification relating to their aims and principles. Their theoretical potentials are analysed, as well as the difficulties of their practical implementation. Finally, the problems of their evaluation and comparison are discussed. Correspondence to: I. Buvat     

RR间期散点图与时间RR间期散点图的临床应用

RR—Lorenz散点图与24h—tRR散点图具有诊断动态心电图的功能，对于典型的心脏节律，使用这两种散点图，容易明确诊断。在动态心电图分析中RR—Lorenz散点图与24h-tRR散点图提供了互补的信息。RR—Lorenz散点图无时间的概念，从散点图上不能得到散点发生的时间，而心脏节律异常的发生与时间相关，随时间的变化而不同，这给临床考察心律的变化与时间的相关性带来了困难。在24h—tRR散点图中散点过稀不能构成特征性图形，而散点过密有时会掩盖一些图形，这时从24h—tRR散点图推断心脏节律可能会遇到困难．这时参看RR—Lorenz散点图及1h—tRR散点图，基本能明确心律的性质。当节律的诊断还是存在困难，如存在散发的个别点或散点图特征不典型时，可采用散点逆向技术，即回归该点所对应的片段心电图，通过分析心电图，达到诊断心律的目的。     

Comparison of scattered entrance skin dose burden in MSCT,CBCT, and X-ray for suspected scaphoid injury: Regional dose measurements in a phantom model

IntroductionScaphoid radiography has poor sensitivity for acute fracture detection and often requires repeat delayed imaging. Although magnetic resonance (MR) imaging is considered the gold standard, computed tomography (CT) is often used as an alternative due to ease of access. Cone-Beam CT (CBCT) offers equivalent diagnostic efficacy to Multi Slice CT (MSCT) at reduced dose. We aimed to establish the difference in scattered dose between modalities for scaphoid imaging.MethodsAnatomical regional entrance surface dose measurements were taken at 3 regions on an anthropomorphic torso phantom positioned as a patient to a wrist phantom undergoing scaphoid imaging for three modalities (CBCT, MSCT, four-view projection radiography). Exposure factors were based on audit of clinical exposures. Each dose measurement was repeated three times per anatomical region, modality, exposure setting and projection.ResultsUnder unpaired T-test CBCT gave significantly lower mean dose at the neck (1.64 vs 18 mGy), chest (2.78 vs 8.01) and abdomen (1.288 vs 2.93) than MSCT (p < .0001). However CBCT had significantly higher mean dose than four-view radiography at the neck, chest and abdomen (0.031, 0.035, and 0.021 mGy) (p < .0001).ConclusionCBCT of the wrist carries a significantly higher scattered radiation dose to the neck, chest and abdomen than four view scaphoid radiography, but significantly lower scattered dose than MSCT of the wrist of equivalent diagnostic value.Implications for practiceThe use of CBCT for scaphoid injury carries significantly lower scattered dose to radio-sensitive structures investigated here than equivalent MSCT, and may be of greater use as an early cross-sectional investigation for suspected scaphoid fracture.     

Intensity-based image registration using scatter search

ObjectiveWe present a novel intensity-based algorithm for medical image registration (IR).Methods and materialsThe IR problem is formulated as a continuous optimization task, and our work focuses on the development of the optimization component. Our method is designed over an advanced scatter search template, and it uses a combination of restart and dynamic boundary mechanisms integrated within a multi-resolution strategy.ResultsThe experimental validation is performed over two datasets of human brain magnetic resonance imaging. The algorithm is evaluated in both a stand-alone registration application and an atlas-based segmentation process targeted to the deep brain structures, considering a total of 16 and 18 scenarios, respectively. Five established IR techniques, both feature- and intensity-based, are considered for comparison purposes, and ground-truth data is used to quantitatively assess the quality of the results. Our approach ranked first in both studies and it is able to outperform all competitors in 12 of 16 registration scenarios and in 14 of 18 registration-based segmentation tasks. A statistical analysis confirms with high confidence (p < 0.014) the accuracy and applicability of our method.ConclusionsWith a proper, problem-specific design, scatter search is able to provide a robust, global optimization. The accuracy and reliability of the registration process are superior to those of classic gradient-based techniques.     

铱192后装放射源在空气中刻度的散射因子

目的:研究铱192后装放射源在空气中刻度的散射因子。方法:PTW井形电离室放置在离地1 m高的支架上,测量在电离室外缘离墙距离5 cm到200 cm处进行,读数以200 cm处读数归一。按多步法、DGMP法和遮挡法要求在空气中用Farmer指形电离室在不同源室距(SCD)上对铱192后装放射源进行测量,遮挡法测量中在放射源和电离室之间放置6 cm厚度的圆锥台型铅挡,测得数据用Origin8.0软件进行拟合处理分析。测量中读数均摈弃端效应、暗电流并做梯度修正。结果:井形电离室对铱192放射源刻度,读数在电离室和墙壁距离较近时受到墙面散射影响,电离室外缘离墙壁距离在1 m以上时散射影响可以忽略,Farmer指形电离室在空气中测量结果表明用Goetsch法和DGMP法计算,散射因子恒定与测量距离(SCD)无关且可以忽略,SF法的散射因子略小。结论:井形电离室刻度后装放射源需在最小散射情况下进行,在空气中用指形电离室进行刻度应对散射进行实际测量,遮挡法是较为符合实际的测量方法。     

全自动血液分析仪散点图在白血病筛检中的应用

目的探讨血液分析仪散点图的异常提示对白血病初筛的诊断价值。方法对初次确诊白血病的患者进行血细胞及散点图的分析。结果在74份散点图有异常提示的血样中,白血病符合率为95.95%。结论全自动血液分析仪散点图对白血病初筛具有较高的诊断价值。     

Human Lung Cancer Cell Line Producing Hepatocyte Growth Factor/Scatter Factor

Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)/scatter factor (SF) is a cytokine which is produced by mesenchymal cells and stimulates the motility of some epithelial cells, including cancer cells and vascular endothelial cells. Two human lung cancer cell lines, PC-1 and PC-13, were found to produce a protein which was indistinguishable from HGF/SF with regard to biological activities and immunological characteristics, although they were derived from epithelial cells. In general, highly aggressive cancer cells often show some mesenchymal characteristics, and production of HGF/SF by cancer cells is also considered as a phenomenon of acquisition of mesenchymal phenotype, which may be involved in cancer invasion and progression. These cell lines showed no apparent response to exogenous HGF/SF. In addition, no c-met proto-oncogene product was detectable in these cells by Western blot analysis. Although the function of HGF/SF produced by cancer cells, either autocrine or paracrine stimulation, remains to be studied, this is the first report to describe cancer cells producing HGF/SF.     

Evaluation of Dosimetric Effect of Millennium and High Definition Multi Leaf Collimator Using 6 MV Photon Beams

Purpose: The present study aims to compare different dosimetric parameters from field sizes defined by secondary and tertiary collimators. A comparison has been drawn between two types of Multi Leaf Collimator (MLC) designs. Materials and Methods: The measurements were obtained using Millennium MLC (Mi-MLC) from Varian Unique™ linear accelerator (LINAC-1) and compared with measurements from Varian Truebeam™ linear accelerator (LINAC-2) using High Definition MLC (HD-MLC). Dosimetric analysis included percentage depth dose (PDD), cross profile, dosimetric leaf gap (DLG) and scatter factor (SF) that were taken for different field sizes defined by both the MLC design and jaw. For beam data measurement PTW Radiation field analyse (RFA) was utilized. Results: When the surface dose for MLC field for linac 1 and linac 2 were compared with jaws they were found to be on the higher side that is 2.8% to 4.9% and 2.2% to 3.6% respectively. The SF was found to vary from -3.2% to 0.73% for LINAC-1 with Mi-MLC when compared with jaws. Similarly, the SF variation from -2.4% to 1.1% was observed for LINAC-2 with HD-MLC as compared with jaw. Larger field sizes gave increased SF while smaller field sizes showed the opposite for HD-MLC. The penumbra was found to be less in HD-MLC as compared to Mi-MLC. Similarly, DLG was found to reduce by 0.056 mm in Mi-MLC when compared with HD-MLC. The results of symmetry and flatness were seen within the limits for both MLC designs. Conclusion: It can be concluded from the results that both the MLC designs have merits and demerits that are based on their effectiveness and clinical use. However, higher surface dose was found in HD-MLC in contrast to Mi-MLC.     

Transmission-based scatter correction of 180° myocardial single-photon emission tomographic studies

Meaningful comparison of single-photon emission tomographic (SPET) reconstructions for data acquired over 180° or 360° can only be performed if both attenuation and scatter correction are applied. Convolution subtraction has appeal as a practical method for scatter correction; however, it is limited to data acquired over 360°. A new algorithm is proposed which can be applied equally well to data acquired over 180° or 360°. The method involves estimating scatter based on knowl edge of reconstructed transmission data in combination with a reconstructed estimate of the activity distribution, obtained using attenuation correction with broad beam attenuation coefficients. Processing is implemented for planes of activity parallel to the projection images for which a simplified model for the scatter distribution may be applied, based on the measured attenuation. The appropriate broad beam (effective) attenuation coefficients were determined by considering the scatter buildup equation. It was demonstrated that narrow beam attenuation coefficients should be scaled by 0.75 and 0.65 to provide broad beam attenuation coefficients for technetium-99m and thallium-201 respectively. Using a thorax phantom, quantitative accuracy of the new algorithm was compared with conventional transmission-based convolution subtraction (TDCS) for 360° data. Similar heart to lung contrasts were achieved and correction of 180° data yielded a 10.4% error for cardiac activity compared to 5.2% for TDCS. Contrast for myocardium to ventricular cavity was similarly good for scatter-corrected 180° and 360° data, in contrast to attenuation-corrected data, where contrast was significantly reduced. The new algorithm provides a practical method for correction of scatter applicable to 180° myocardial SPET.