Current therapeutic uses of lenalidomide in multiple myeloma

Thalidomide has demonstrated a broad spectrum of pharmacological and immunological effects, with potential therapeutic applications that span a wide spectrum of diseases: cancer and related conditions; infectious diseases; autoimmune diseases; dermatological diseases; and other disorders such as sarcoidosis, macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy. Immunomodulatory derivative lenalidomide has more potent antitumour and anti-inflammatory effects. The molecular mechanisms of antitumour activity of lenalidomide have been extensively studied in multiple myeloma (MM). It directly induces growth arrest and/or apoptosis of even drug-resistant MM cells; inhibits binding of MM cells to bone marrow extracellular matrix proteins and stromal cells; modulates cytokine secretion and inhibits angiogenesis in the bone marrow milieu; and augments host antitumour immunity. Importantly, lenalidomide induces significant clinical responses even in patients with relapsed/refractory MM. Therefore, lenalidomide represents a new class of antitumour agents that is useful in the treatment of MM. Lenalidomide has received fast track designation from the FDA for the treatment of MM and myelodysplastic syndromes.     

Lenalidomide as a novel treatment of acute myeloid leukemia

Introduction: Lenalidomide is an oral immunomodulatory drug derived from thalidomide. This drug has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration for transfusion-dependent anemia due to low-risk myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) associated with deletion 5q abnormality with or without additional cytogenetic abnormalities and multiple myeloma in combination with dexamethasone. Trials have been conducted for its use in higher-risk MDS and acute myeloid leukemia (AML).

Areas covered: The pharmacokinetic and mechanism of action are discussed and clinical studies of lenalidomide in AML are reported herein in detail. An overview of safety and tolerability is also presented.

Expert opinion: Lenalidomide has clinical activity in AML with manageable toxicity. The population that would benefit from lenalidomide and optimal dose needs to be better defined. Recent trials have focused on combining lenalidomide with other agents active in MDS and AML and promising data are emerging.     

New generation pharmacotherapy in elderly multiple myeloma patients

Background: Observational databases have demonstrated that the overall prognosis of multiple myeloma patients has markedly improved over the past decade, yet the greatest strides have been attained in younger rather than older patients. Objective: To review recent clinical trials that include new generation agents (thalidomide, lenalidomide and bortezomib) and autologous stem cell transplantation in older multiple myeloma patients. Results: Conventional regimens such as melphalan plus prednisone can be improved with the addition of thalidomide or bortezomib: more patients attain complete and near-complete remission, and progression-free survival rates are nearly doubled. In addition, autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation studies show that this treatment approach can be used successfully in selected older myeloma patients in whom the toxicity profile of autotransplant and resulting overall survival may be similar to that obtained in the younger patient group. Conclusions: In the advanced-age population, implementation of new therapies results in significant benefits in older as well as younger patients.     

Angiogenesis inhibitors in the treatment of prostate cancer

Importance of the field: Prostate carcinoma is the most common non-cutaneous malignancy in U.S. men. The efficacy of docetaxel and prednisone in metastatic castrate-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) has been shown to improve overall survival; however, its effect is not durable, highlighting the need for new therapies.

Areas covered in this review: We will review the development of some of the leading compounds with direct and indirect antiangiogenic activity in prostate cancer including antibodies to VEGF and its receptors, small-molecule inhibitors of downstream signaling, immunomodulatory drugs with antiangiogenic activity, and compounds thought to directly inhibit or destroy vascular endothelial cells.

What the reader will gain: The reader will gain a basic understanding of the role of angiogenesis in prostate cancer growth and metastasis. Current and potential targets of angiogenesis and their corresponding drugs under development for prostate cancer are discussed.

Take home message: There are now multiple early-phase clinical trials of antiangiogenic agents alone or in combination in prostate cancer. Several of these agents are now in Phase III development. Combined therapy with two antiangiogenic compounds may improve the activity of either compound alone. Multiple targets in the angiogenesis pathway continue to be elucidated and should remain an active area of investigation for the treatment of prostate cancer.     

Update on the pharmacotherapy for myelodysplastic syndromes

Introduction: For many decades, myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) were a poorly understood disease group with no approved therapies, and patient management largely relied upon supportive care and intensive chemotherapy. The last decade has seen many scientific and therapeutic advances culminating in the US FDA approval of three drugs for the treatment of these complex malignancies: lenalidomide, azacitidine and decitabine.

Areas covered: This review summarizes the major prognostic risk models that guide treatment decisions and examines the available literature on the mechanism of action and efficacy of each of the approved agents. The authors also discuss evidence supporting the use of other therapies that have entered the standard of care including growth factors, immunosuppressive therapy and stem-cell transplantation.

Expert opinion: While significant progress has been made in understanding the molecular basis of MDS, much of this has yet to translate into therapeutic benefit. Each of the available treatment modalities has shortcomings, and both combination strategies and novel agents are under investigation in clinical trials to improve outcomes.     

Clinical impact of chromosomal aberrations in multiple myeloma

Chromosomal aberrations are frequently found in multiple myeloma cells and play a major role in patient outcome and management of the disease. The most important chromosomal aberrations associated with poor outcome are del(17p), t(4;14), t(14;16) and t(14;20). Others that may be associated with adverse prognosis include amp(1)(q21), del(1p32), del(13), del(8p21) and hypodiploidy. Many chromosomal aberrations have no or uncertain impact; for example, t(11;14), t(8;14) and hyperdiploidy. Attempts have been made to overcome the negative prognostic impact of chromosomal aberrations using autologous or allogeneic transplantation or new immunomodulatory drugs such as thalidomide, lenalidomide and the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib, but the results are controversial. Data suggest that allogeneic transplantation and treatment with bortezomib or lenalidomide may help to overcome the negative effect of del(13) on prognosis, whereas bortezomib may have some influence on reducing the impact of del(17p), t(4;14) and t(14;16). Chromosome analysis should always be performed at diagnosis of multiple myeloma to improve the prediction of outcome and to aid treatment decision-making.     

多发性骨髓瘤维持治疗的研究进展

多发性骨髓瘤(multiple mfeloma,MM)是第二常见的血液肿瘤病,目前仍无法治愈。诱导治疗后序贯自体干细胞移植（ASCT）已经成为一种标准化治疗,但依然可能存在复发。使用维持治疗的目的是通过增加无进展生存期（PFS）,加深缓解,进而增加总生存期(OS)。本文主要对新药时代MM的维持治疗的进展作一综述。     

青蒿琥酯联合来那度胺对多发性骨髓瘤耐药细胞株的作用

目的 探讨青蒿琥酯联合来那度胺对多发性骨髓瘤耐药(MM.1R)细胞株增殖的影响并分析其作用机制.方法 实验设4组,空白对照组只加RPMI 1640培养液、来那度胺组加20μmol/L来那度胺、青蒿琥酯组加25μg/mL青蒿琥酯、来那度胺联合青蒿琥酯组加20μmol/L来那度胺浓度和25μg/mL青蒿琥酯浓度,终体积为200μL,分别对MM.1R细胞株处理24和48 h,MTT法检测细胞增殖;Western blot检测来那度胺联合青蒿琥酯处理24和48 h,MM.1R细胞株NF-κB P65蛋白,Bcl-2家族抗凋亡蛋白Bcl-xl、Mcl-1、p-Bad,多药耐药基因MDR1蛋白表达产物P-gp的表达水平.结果 来那度胺、青蒿琥酯、来那度胺联合青蒿琥酯处理24和48 h,各组抑制率分别为15.16%、28.28%、45.98%和17.19%、34.53%、65.16%,与对照组比较差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05,P<0.01),来那度胺联合青蒿琥酯组抑制率高于单药处理组(P<0.05),两药联合有良好的协同效应,两药联合处理48 h抑制率高于24 h,抑制效应呈时间依赖性;来那度胺联合青蒿琥酯处理24和48 h,MM.1R细胞株P-gp、NF-κB P65、Bcl-xl、Mcl-1、p-Bad表达量均低于对照组(P<0.05),两药联合处理48 h,MM.1R细胞株NF-κB P65、Bcl-xl、Mcl-1、p-Bad蛋白表达量低于24 h(P<0.05),表现出时间依赖性.结论 青蒿琥酯、来那度胺可抑制耐药MM细胞增殖,两药联合有协同效应,时间依赖性下调NF-κB P65蛋白、Bcl-2家族抗凋亡蛋白Bcl-xl、Mcl-1、p-Bad的表达,降低P-gp表达水平可能为其逆转肿瘤细胞耐药的作用机制.     

Lenalidomide in combination or alone as maintenance therapy following autologous stem cell transplant in patients with multiple myeloma: a review of options for and against

Introduction: Lenalidomide has multifaceted antimyeloma properties, including direct tumoricidal and immunomodulatory effects. Several randomized controlled trials have demonstrated improved patient outcomes with lenalidomide maintenance after autologous stem cell transplant (ASCT) in patients with newly diagnosed multiple myeloma (NDMM). Currently, single-agent lenalidomide is the only approved post-ASCT maintenance therapy in the United States and European Union for patients with NDMM.

Areas covered: This review article summarizes the efficacy and safety data of lenalidomide maintenance, as monotherapy and in combination with other agents, following ASCT in patients with NDMM. In addition, emerging therapies with newer agents in this setting are discussed.

Expert opinion: Following ASCT, maintenance therapy with lenalidomide until progressive disease is an effective and well-tolerated regimen and represents the standard of care for patients with NDMM. Studies evaluating maintenance with lenalidomide in combination with next-generation proteasome inhibitors, monoclonal antibodies, and histone deacetylase inhibitors may further improve patient outcomes.     

Pooled analysis of the reports of pomalidomide after failure of lenalidomide and (or) bortezomib for multiple myeloma

The use of pomalidomide after lenalidomide and (or) bortezomib failure in patients with multiple myeloma is not clearly clarified in clinical practice. We sought to compile the available clinical reports to better understand the effectiveness of pomalidomide after failure of lenalidomide and (or) bortezomib. We searched published reports including pomalidomide, lenalidomide and (or) bortezomib. Seven reports were identified. Pomalidomide‐based regimen was pomalidomide plus low‐dose dexamethasone (POM + LoDEX). Six randomized controlled trials enrolling a total of 641 patients that evaluated the treatment effects of pomalidomide after lenalidomide and (or) bortezomib failure in patients with multiple myeloma were included. Pooled results showed that the overall response rate (ORR) was 31% in the POM + LoDEX group. Analysis of heterogeneity showed very little (p = 0.997, I² = 0%), suggesting that response rates of POM + LoDEX therapy were consistent across those included trials. Stable disease was achieved in 40% of 603 patients (heterogeneity: p = 0.980, I² = 0%). In those >65 years, overall response was achieved in 32% of 71 patients (heterogeneity: p = 0.77, I² = 0%). POM + LoDEX showed promising activity in the 95 patients with high‐risk cytogenetic abnormalities: ORR was 27% (heterogeneity: p = 0.97, I² = 0%). In the pooled analysis, toxicity consisted primarily of myelosuppression: Grade 3 or 4 neutropenia was seen in 53% (heterogeneity: p = 0.857, I² = 0%). Pomalidomide may produce clinical benefits in patients who had shown refractory on prior lenalidomide and (or) bortezomib therapy. Moreover, elder patients and high‐risk cytogenetic abnormalities were not negative predictors for pomalidomide response after lenalidomide and (or) bortezomib failure. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.