EGCG stabilizes growth cone filopodia and impairs retinal ganglion cell axon guidance

Background : Antioxidants such as the green tea polyphenol epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) are neuroprotective under many conditions in mature nervous systems; however, their impact has rarely been explored in developing nervous systems, in which a critical step is the formation of connections between neurons. Axons emerge from newly formed neurons and are led by a dynamic structure found at their tip called a growth cone. Here we explore the impact of EGCG on the development of retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons, which connect the eye to the brain. Results : EGCG acts directly on RGC axons to increase the number of growth cone filopodia, fingerlike projections that respond to extrinsic signals, in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, EGCG exposure leads to a dramatic defect in the guided growth of RGC axons where the axons fail to make a key turn in the mid‐diencephalon required to reach their target. Intriguingly, at guidance points where RGCs do not show a change in direction, EGCG has no influence on RGC axon behavior. Conclusions : We propose that EGCG stabilizes filopodia and prevents normal filopodial dynamics required for axons to change their direction of outgrowth at guidance decision points. Developmental Dynamics 245:667–677, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

CUG‐BP,Elav‐like family member 1 (CELF1) is required for normal myofibrillogenesis,morphogenesis, and contractile function in the embryonic heart

Background: CUG‐BP, Elav‐like family member 1 (CELF1) is a multifunctional RNA binding protein found in a variety of adult and embryonic tissues. In the heart, CELF1 is found exclusively in the myocardium. However, the roles of CELF1 during cardiac development have not been completely elucidated. Results: Myofibrillar organization is disrupted and proliferation is reduced following knockdown of CELF1 in cultured chicken primary embryonic cardiomyocytes. In vivo knockdown of Celf1 in developing Xenopus laevis embryos resulted in myofibrillar disorganization and a trend toward reduced proliferation in heart muscle, indicating conserved roles for CELF1 orthologs in embryonic cardiomyocytes. Loss of Celf1 also resulted in morphogenetic abnormalities in the developing heart and gut. Using optical coherence tomography, we showed that cardiac contraction was impaired following depletion of Celf1, while heart rhythm remained unperturbed. In contrast to cardiac muscle, loss of Celf1 did not disrupt myofibril organization in skeletal muscle cells, although it did lead to fragmentation of skeletal muscle bundles. Conclusions: CELF1 is required for normal myofibril organization, proliferation, morphogenesis, and contractile performance in the developing myocardium. Developmental Dynamics 245:854–873, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Proper notch activity is necessary for the establishment of proximal cells and differentiation of intermediate,distal, and connecting tubule in Xenopus pronephros development

Background: Notch signaling in pronephros development has been shown to regulate establishment of glomus and proximal tubule, but how Notch signal works on competency of pronephric anlagen during the generation of pronephric components remains to be understood. Results: We investigated how components of pronephros (glomus, proximal tubule, intermediate tubule, distal tubule, and connecting tubule) were generated in Xenopus embryos by timed overactivation and suppression of Notch signaling. Notch activation resulted in expansion of the glomus and disruption of the proximal tubule formation. Inhibition of Notch signaling reduced expression of wt1 and XSMP‐30. In addition, when Notch signaling was overactivated at stage 20 on, intermediate, distal, and connecting tubule markers, gremlin and clcnkb, were decreased while Notch down‐regulation increased gremlin and clcnkb. Similar changes were observed with segmental markers, cldn19, cldn14, and rhcg on activation or inhibition of Notch. Although Notch did not affect the expression of pan‐pronephric progenitor marker, pax2, its activation inhibited lumen formation in the pronephros. Conclusions: Notch signal is essential for glomus and proximal tubule development and inhibition of Notch is critical for the differentiation of the intermediate, distal, and connecting tubule. Developmental Dynamics 245:472–482, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Distribution of single wall carbon nanotubes in the Xenopus laevis embryo after microinjection

Single wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) are advanced materials with the potential for a myriad of diverse applications, including biological technologies and large‐scale usage with the potential for environmental impacts. SWCNTs have been exposed to developing organisms to determine their effects on embryogenesis, and results have been inconsistent arising, in part, from differing material quality, dispersion status, material size, impurity from catalysts and stability. For this study, we utilized highly purified SWCNT samples with short, uniform lengths (145 ± 17 nm) well dispersed in solution. To test high exposure doses, we microinjected > 500 µg ml^–1 SWCNT concentrations into the well‐established embryogenesis model, Xenopus laevis, and determined embryo compatibility and subcellular localization during development. SWCNTs localized within cellular progeny of the microinjected cells, but were heterogeneously distributed throughout the target‐injected tissue. Co‐registering unique Raman spectral intensity of SWCNTs with images of fluorescently labeled subcellular compartments demonstrated that even at regions of highest SWCNT concentration, there were no gross alterations to subcellular microstructures, including filamentous actin, endoplasmic reticulum and vesicles. Furthermore, SWCNTs did not aggregate and localized to the perinuclear subcellular region. Combined, these results suggest that purified and dispersed SWCNTs are not toxic to X. laevis animal cap ectoderm and may be suitable candidate materials for biological applications. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Development of the Larval Amphibian Growth and Development Assay: Effects of benzophenone‐2 exposure in Xenopus laevis from embryo to juvenile

The Larval Amphibian Growth and Development Assay (LAGDA) is a globally harmonized chemical testing guideline developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in collaboration with Japan's Ministry of Environment to support risk assessment. The assay is employed as a higher tiered approach to evaluate effects of chronic chemical exposure throughout multiple life stages in a model amphibian species, Xenopus laevis. To evaluate the utility of the initial LAGDA design, the assay was performed using a mixed mode of action endocrine disrupting chemical, benzophenone‐2 (BP‐2). X. laevis embryos were exposed in flow‐through conditions to 0, 1.5, 3.0 or 6.0 mg l^–1 BP‐2 until 2 months post‐metamorphosis. Overt toxicity was evident throughout the exposure period in the 6.0 mg l^–1 treatment due to elevated mortality rates and observed liver and kidney pathologies. Concentration‐dependent increases in severity of thyroid follicular cell hypertrophy and hyperplasia occurred in larval tadpoles indicating BP‐2‐induced impacts on the thyroid axis. Additionally, gonads were impacted in all treatments with some genetic males showing both testis and ovary tissues (1.5 mg l^–1) and 100% of the genetic males in the 3.0 and 6.0 mg l^?1 treatments experiencing complete male‐to‐female sex reversal. Concentration‐dependent vitellogenin induction occurred in both genders with associated accumulations of protein in the livers, kidneys and gonads, which was likely vitellogenin and other estrogen‐responsive yolk proteins. This is the first study that demonstrates the endocrine effects of this mixed mode of action chemical in an amphibian species and demonstrates the utility of the LAGDA design for supporting chemical risk assessment. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

NH4 + conductance in Xenopus laevis oocytes

 Superfusing Xenopus laevis oocytes with NH₄Cl (10 mmol/l, pH 7.5) resulted in an inward current at a clamp potential of –70 mV. In paired experiments (n=22), the NH₄Cl-induced peak current was –293±94 nA, under control conditions (osmolality: 240 mosmol/kg), and rose to –523±196 nA when osmolality was reduced to 144 mosmol/kg. In parallel with the rise in NH₄Cl-induced inward current, membrane conductance at –70 mV doubled and the zero-current potential changed from +3.3±9.4 mV to –22.0±8.0 mV (n=22) in the presence of NH₄Cl during exposure to a hypoosmolar solution. In the absence of NH₄Cl, oocytes responded to hypoosmolality with a shift in zero-current potential to more negative values and an increased conductance which became partially sensitive to isosorbiddinitrate (ISDN), suggesting the activation of a volume-sensitive K⁺ channel. Membrane conductance in the presence of NH₄Cl was decreased by ISDN to similar extents under isoosmolal and hypoosmolal conditions, indicating that NH₄ ⁺ enters the oocytes through a volume-sensitive conductance separate from the ISDN-sensitive K⁺ channel. Received: 20 July 1998 / Received after revision and accepted: 19 October 1998     

Ion channel activation by SPC3, a peptide derived from the HIV‐1 gp120 V3 loop

Abstract: SPC3 is a multibranched peptide containing eight identical GPGRAF motifs which are derived from the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)‐1 gp120 V3 loop consensus sequence. This molecule was reported to prevent the infection of CD4⁺ cells by various HIV‐1 and HIV‐2 strains. However, the molecular mode of action of SPC3 remains unclear. Here, we investigated the possibility that SPC3 could interact with α/β‐chemokine receptors following observations that, first, the V3 loop is likely to be involved in α/β‐chemokine receptor‐dependent HIV entry and, second, natural ligands of these receptors are potent inhibitors of cell infection. To address this point, we examined the effects of SPC3 on Xenopus oocytes either uninjected or expressing exogenous human CXCR4 α‐chemokine receptors. Extracellular applications of micromolar concentrations of SPC3 onto Xenopus oocytes trigger potent inward chloride currents which can be inhibited by increasing extracellular Ca²⁺ concentration. This effect can be blocked by chloride channel antagonists and is highly specific to SPC3 as it is not triggered by structural analogs of SPC3. The SPC3‐induced chloride conductance in oocytes is α/β‐chemokine receptor dependent because: (i) SPC3 alters the sensitivity of this channel to external applications of human recombinant MIP‐1α, a natural ligand of human CCR5 receptor, and (ii) the amplitude of the inward current could be increased by the expression of exogenous human CXCR4 chemokine receptor. The effect of SPC3 appears to rely on the activation of a phospholipase A₂ signaling pathway, but is not affected by changes in cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration, or by alterations in Gi/Go protein, adenylate cyclase, phospholipase C or protein kinase C activity. Altogether, the data indicate that SPC3 is capable of activating a surface α/β‐chemokine‐like receptor‐mediated signaling pathway in competent cells, thereby triggering, either directly or indirectly, a Ca²⁺‐inactivated chloride conductance.     

Effect of maurotoxin,a four disulfide‐bridged toxin from the chactoid scorpion Scorpio maurus,on Shaker K+ channels

Abstract: Maurotoxin is a 34‐residue toxin isolated from the venom of the Tunisian chactoid scorpion Scorpio maurus palmatus and contains four disulfide bridges that are normally found in long‐chain toxins of 60–70 amino acid residues, which affect voltage‐gated sodium channels. However, despite the unconventional disulfide‐bridge pattern of maurotoxin, the conformation of this toxin remains similar to that of other toxins acting on potassium channels. Here, we analyzed the effects of synthetic maurotoxin on voltage‐gated Shaker potassium channels (ShB) expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Maurotoxin produces a strong, but reversible, inhibition of the ShB K⁺ current with an IC₅₀ of 2 nm . Increasing concentrations of the toxin induce a progressively higher block at saturating concentrations. At nonsaturating concentrations of the toxin (5–20 nm ), the channel block appears slightly more pronounced at threshold potentials suggesting that the toxin may have a higher affinity for the closed state of the channel. At the single channel level, the toxin does not modify the unitary current amplitude, but decreases ensemble currents by increasing the number of depolarizing epochs that failed to elicit any opening. A point mutation of Lys²³ to alanine in maurotoxin produces a 1000‐fold reduction in the IC₅₀ of block by the toxin suggesting the importance of this charged residue for the interaction with the channel. Maurotoxin does not affect K⁺ currents carried by Kir2.3 channels in oocytes or Na⁺ currents carried by the α_IIa channel expressed in CHO cells.     

淀粉样β蛋白1-40对爪蟾卵母细胞表达的淋巴细胞神经递质受体功能的影响

观察淀粉样β蛋白_1-40(Aβ_1-40)对爪蟾卵母细胞表达的淋巴细胞神经递质受体(NR)功能的影响,探讨淋巴细胞NR功能检测在阿尔茨海默痴呆(AD)病理生理学上的意义. 将提取的人外周血淋巴细胞mRNA(50 ng)显微注射到成熟的非洲爪蟾卵母细胞,在(19.0±1.0)℃条件下孵育24 h后采用双电极电压钳位记录-60 mV维持电位时的受体激活电流. Aβ_1-40于记录前12 h加入孵育液. 结果发现注射人外周血淋巴细胞mRNA的爪蟾卵母细胞能表达出乙酰胆碱, 谷氨酸, 多巴胺, 5-羟色胺和γ-氨基丁酸受体. 这些表达的受体激活电流的共性是由氯离子载流的内向电流,其平衡电位接近于-22 mV. Aβ_1-40 60 nmol·L^-1对卵母细胞表达的NR功能有抑制效应,其NR峰电流降低分别为乙酰胆碱23%, 谷氨酸27%, 多巴胺25%,维生素E有拮抗Aβ_1-40效应的作用。外周血淋巴细胞NR功能检测作为AD外周评价指标值得更深入的研究.