Pathways to earned-security: The role of alternative support figures

This study explored the kinds of relationship experiences associated with earned-security, i.e., the extent to which mothers who report early negative relationship histories with their parents are later able to form a secure working model of attachment (indicated by the ability to speak clearly and coherently about these histories). Mothers from a low-risk sample (N = 121) expecting their first child completed the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI), which was used to assess earned-security retrospectively using the stringent definition recommended by Main and Hesse (Hesse, 2008 Hesse, E. 2008. “The Adult Attachment Interview: Protocol, method of analysis, and empirical studies”. In The handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications, Edited by: Cassidy, J. and Shaver, P. R. 552–598. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.  [Google Scholar]; Main, Goldwyn, & Hesse, 2002 Main, M., Goldwyn, R. and Hesse, E. 2002/2008. Adult attachment scoring and classification system, Unpublished scoring manual, University of California at Berkeley.  [Google Scholar]), as well as to identify alternative support figures. Participants also completed self-report measures of depressive symptomatology, questionnaires concerning their experiences in therapy, and later, when their babies were 12 to 15 months old, the Strange Situation procedure. Sixteen mothers were classified as earned-secure (25% of those classified as secure-autonomous and 13% of the whole sample). Women who were earned-secure (vs. insecure and continuous-secure) reported significantly higher levels of emotional support, but not instrumental support, from alternative support figures. They also spent more time in therapy than did insecure and continuous-secure women and were more likely to form secure attachments with their infants than insecure women. These findings were obtained even after controlling for depressive symptoms.     

Pet in the therapy room: An attachment perspective on Animal-Assisted Therapy

John Bowlby's (1973 Bowlby, J. 1973. Attachment and loss: Vol. 2. Separation: Anxiety and anger, New York, NY: Basic Books. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 1980 Bowlby, J. 1980. Attachment and loss: Vol. 3. Sadness and depression, New York, NY: Basic Books.  [Google Scholar], 1982 Bowlby, J. 1982. Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment, New York, NY: Basic Books. Original work published 1969 [Google Scholar]) attachment theory is one of the most influential theories in personality and developmental psychology and provides insights into adjustment and psychopathology across the lifespan. The theory is also helpful in defining the target of change in psychotherapy, understanding the processes by which change occurs, and conceptualizing cases and planning treatment (Daniel, 2006 Daniel, S. I.F. 2006. Adult attachment patterns and individual psychotherapy: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 26: 968–984. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Obegi & Berant, 2008 Obegi, J. H. and Berant, E. 2008. Attachment theory and research in clinical work with adults, New York, NY: Guilford Press.  [Google Scholar]; Sable, 2004 Sable, P. 2004. Attachment, ethology, and adult psychotherapy. Attachment & Human Development, 6: 3–19. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Wallin, 2007 Wallin, D. J. 2007. Attachment in psychotherapy, New York, NY: Guilford Publications.  [Google Scholar]). Here, we propose a model of Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) based on attachment theory and on the unique characteristics of human–pet relationships. The model includes clients' unmet attachment needs, individual differences in attachment insecurity, coping, and responsiveness to therapy. It also suggests ways to foster the development of more adaptive patterns of attachment and healthier modes of relating to others.     

Growing up in foster families or institutions: Attachment representation and psychological adjustment of young adults

ABSTRACT

Background: Attachment Theory has become one of the leading theories in human development. Nonetheless, empirical studies focusing on how attachment unfolds during adolescence are still scarce particularly in Spain, due to the lack of adequate measures. Objective: This study aims to validate the Important People Interview (IPI) in a shorter questionnaire version (Important People- Questionnaire; IP-Q); to analyse the changes in different affiliative bonds to multiple figures -family, peers, romantic partners – over the course of adolescence; and to identify boys’ and girls’ hierarchical ordering of their specific attachment bonds. Method: 1025 Spanish adolescents, aged 12–17 years old completed the IP-Q. Results: The results showed that the IP-Q has convergent and divergent validity. Moreover, this measure indicated that peers overtake some family members in proximity-seeking and support-seeking, but not in the overall hierarchical ordering of the attachment bond during adolescence. Conclusions: The bond with the romantic partner increases in terms of scoring on the affiliative subscales as adolescence progresses. There are significant gender differences among the hierarchy patterns of attachment for boys and girls. Developmental changes in adolescent attachment are discussed.     

Early maternal separation,nightmares, and bad dreams: Results from the Hungarostudy Epidemiological Panel

Early maternal separation is a particularly stressful experience. Current models of nightmare production emphasize negative emotionality as having a central role in determining dream affect. Our aim is to test the hypothesis that persons who experienced early maternal separation (before one year of age and lasting at least one month) report more frequent nightmare experiences and bad dreams as adults. In the frame of the Hungarostudy Epidemiological Panel, 5020 subjects were interviewed. Significant associations were found between early maternal separation and both frequent nightmare experience in adulthood and increased frequency of oppressive and bad dreams. Current depression scores fully mediated the association between early separation and nightmares, but not the association between early separation and negative dream affect. We interpret these findings as a trait-like enhancement of negative emotionality in adults who experienced early maternal separation. This enhancement influences the content of dreams and, when it takes the form of depression, also influences the frequency of nightmares.     

Independent influences upon mother–toddler role reversal: infant–mother attachment disorganization and role reversal in mother's childhood

In role reversal a child takes an inappropriate parental, spousal, or peer role with the caregiver. The study assessed attachment disorganization with mother in infancy in the Strange Situation (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978 Ainsworth, M. D.S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E. and Wall, S. 1978. Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.  [Google Scholar]) and role reversal at 2 years old in videotaped mother–child interactions. By closely observing role reversal at this early age, results fill in the picture concerning the link between disorganized infant–mother attachment and controlling role reversal at 6 years old (Main & Cassidy, 1988 Main, M. and Cassidy, J. 1988. Categories of response to reunion with the parent at age 6: Predictable from infant attachment classifications and stable over a 1-month period. Developmental Psychology, 24: 415–426. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Main, Kaplan, & Cassidy, 1985 Main, M., Kaplan, N. and Cassidy, J. C. 1985. “Security in infancy, childhood, and adulthood: A move to the level of representation”. In Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development Edited by: Bretherton, I. and Waters, E. 50(Serial No. 209, 1–2), 66–104[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). As hypothesized, infant–mother disorganization significantly predicted mother–toddler role reversal. The study also deepened research that predicted role reversal from parent Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) role reversal assessed before the child was born (Macfie, McElwain, Houts, & Cox, 2005 Macfie, J., McElwain, N. L., Houts, R. M. and Cox, M. J. 2005. Intergenerational transmission of role reversal between parent and child: Dyadic and family systems internal working models. Attachment & Human Development, 7: 51–65. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). As hypothesized, mother AAI role reversal with her mother in childhood significantly predicted mother–toddler role reversal over and above infant–mother disorganization. Results are discussed within a developmental psychopathology framework including opportunities for developmentally sensitive interventions.     

Attachment organization in Vietnam combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder

Attachment organization in a combat-related PTSD sample was investigated and compared with previously published clinical and non-clinical samples. The association between insecure attachment and unresolved mourning classification (U-loss) and between U-loss and PTSD symptoms was investigated. Vietnam combat veterans diagnosed with PTSD and in treatment (N = 48) were administered the Adult Attachment Interview, the SCID-IV, and CAPS. The PTSD sample was like non-clinical samples in the incidence of secure attachment (50%), but were more commonly unresolved. Veterans with insecure attachment organizations were more likely than those with secure attachment to be classified U-loss. U-loss classification was associated with greater likelihood of comorbid anxiety disorders and PTSD avoidance/numbing symptoms. The results suggest that while insecure attachment organization is associated with unresolved mourning in response to loss, it is not differentially associated with combat-related PTSD. The relationship between U-loss and PTSD is discussed in light of current literature.     

Attachment security and parenting quality predict children's problem-solving,attributions, and loneliness with peers

The influence of early relational experience on later social understanding has evoked rich theoretical discussion but relatively little empirical inquiry. Enlisting data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, measures of the security of attachment in infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood, together with measures of parenting quality (maternal sensitivity and depressive symptoms) gathered longitudinally throughout infancy and early childhood, were used to predict differences in children's thoughts and feelings about peers (i.e., social problem solving, negative attributional biases, aggressive solutions to ambiguous social situations, and self-reported loneliness) when children were 54 months and in first grade. Relational experiences, especially before 36 months, were significantly predictive of later peer-related representations. Attachment security at 24 and 36 months was associated with enhanced social problem-solving skills and less loneliness, but security of attachment at 15 months was nonpredictive. Early maternal sensitivity was positively associated with later social problem-solving and negatively with aggressive responses, and early maternal depressive symptoms were positively associated with children's negative attributions. Concurrent parenting quality was also associated with children's thoughts and feelings about peers, but less consistently. These findings shed new light on how early relational experiences may contribute to social information processing with peers at the end of the preschool years, and that the timing of relational influences may be crucial.     

The association of family support and wellbeing in later life depends on adult attachment style

The current study examines the association between family support and wellbeing in the elderly, paying particular attention to the possible moderating role of attachment style. Data from a community-dwelling, ethnically diverse, elderly sample (N = 1118) were analyzed to determine the best linear combination of emotional support, instrumental support, and attachment styles predicting wellbeing. Emotional support generally was associated with higher wellbeing whereas instrumental support was related to decreased wellbeing. As expected, however, these associations were qualified by attachment style. Receiving emotional support had stronger positive and instrumental support less negative effects on the wellbeing of elderly individuals with higher attachment security. Given increased longevity, family networks may become important sources of support for the elderly. Work detailing when, how, and for whom particular types of family support are beneficial is a key agenda within developmental psychology and social gerontology.     

The role of disconnected and extremely insensitive parenting in the development of disorganized attachment: validation of a new measure

Early adverse caregiving experiences constitute an important risk factor for the development of disorganized attachment in infancy, especially extreme insensitivity and frightening behavior associated with an unresolved loss or trauma. Using existing measures for frightening parenting and disrupted communication, we developed a new measure assessing Disconnected and extremely Insensitive Parenting (DIP), in order to investigate the unique contribution of disconnected and extremely insensitive parenting behaviors to infant disorganization. Maternal behavior was assessed during a laboratory session in a low-risk sample of 202 mothers and their infants. Construct and discriminant validity of the DIP was established for both types of parental behavior. Disconnected parental behavior predicted infant disorganization but not organized attachment security, whereas extreme insensitivity was marginally related to organized attachment insecurity in boys but not to attachment disorganization.