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Aim
The first aim of this study was to establish the frequency of wearing a tie or business neckerchief on different occasions and in relation to age and educational level. The second aim was to establish whether men who frequently wear a tie were attributed certain characteristics more often than men who rarely wear a tie and to establish whether there were differences in the attribution of these characteristics according to sex, age, educational level, and the frequency of wearing a tie.Method
Data were collected in 2005 by a method of face to face interview on a national representative sample (n = 1007). Participants estimated how often they wore a tie or business neckerchief on 9 different occasions. They also estimated whether each of 14 characteristics was more pronounced in men who frequently wear a tie.Results
Tie was most frequently worn on festive and formal occasions, such as weddings and festive gatherings, and least frequently on family gatherings and when traveling. On all occasions, tie was more often worn by men of higher educational level and of older and middle age. A relatively small proportion of Croatian citizens based their conclusions on men’s characteristics on the frequency of wearing a tie. Men who frequently wear a tie were relatively most often attributed the characteristics of ambition, politeness, and respectability, with significant differences found between persons who attributed these characteristics according to sex, age, educational level, and the frequency of wearing a tie by the participants themselves.Conclusion
Wearing a tie or neckerchief is an exception rather than a rule for most of the Croatian population, and is associated only with specific, primarily festive and formal occasions. Such use of the tie suggests that people adapt their style of clothing to the expectations of others and use it as a specific symbol of the occasion.Clothing is a form of non-verbal communication and represents a systematic way of conscious or unconscious information transmission (1). What distinguishes clothing from other forms of non-verbal communication is that it is the first thing we notice when we meet a person for the first time. Clothing can influence our first impression of a person, create stereotypes, and influence our behavior toward that person (2,3). Therefore, we use clothing as a channel of non-verbal communication for self-presentation and impression management (4). Clothing is also important for our self-concept, since it allows us to feel safer, more assertive, more powerful, and more comfortable in a given situation (4,5). Besides that, the clothes we wear are an example of normative social influence (6), ie the influence we conform to in order to be accepted by a desired social group.More systematic investigation on the influence of clothes on interpersonal relations began in the 1970s and by now a large number of studies have confirmed that people form the impressions on other people on the basis of their physical appearance, especially clothes (7). For example, Damhorst (8), in his review, concluded that 94% of the analyzed experimental studies showed an influence of clothes on the impression formation. Research showed that the way a person is dressed influences the conclusions other people make on their traits and characteristics, such as reliability, competence, power/status, or their workplace (9-13). People not only base their conclusions on clothes itself but also on the appropriateness of clothes to the occasion (7). Different roles or social positions and different occupations or work places are often related to different social norms, including the clothing norm (4,14-16). Even when we do not place much importance on social roles, we still use clothing to adapt to the situation because we care about the reactions of others. Also, appropriate clothing facilitates social interaction and helps us feel more comfortable (4,5). People use clothes to demonstrate similarities in values and beliefs with members of their own group, as well as differences from the groups they do not belong to (17-19). The choice of clothes can show our disagreement with certain norms or terminate unwanted social interactions.The greatest part of the research on the influence of clothes on impression formation and management was conducted in business situations and is related to conventional or classic clothing style (14-16,20). These studies have shown that the applicant’s clothing at interview has an influence on whether he or she will get a job, and that classically or conventionally dressed people are more positively evaluated. Classic or conventional clothing includes a suit for both men and women and a tie for men. It has been proven that this style of clothing is associated with competence and authority in both men and women, not only in business situations (15,21-25).According to the available data, 600-700 million people across the world wear a tie every day, and more than two billion Euro is spent on ties every year, which is more than a yearly budget of some smaller states (26). According to Johnson (27), the earliest known version of the tie was found in the mausoleum of the first emperor of China, Shih Huang Ti, who was buried in 210 BC. Tie’s modern history began in the 17th century, when Croatian soldiers fighting in the Thirty Years'' War spread its forerunner, known as the cravat, all over Europe. In his monograph Le grande histoire de la cravate, Francois Chaille confirms and discusses the Croatian origin of the cravat (Figure 1), while the Encyclopćdia Britannica states that the noun “cravat” originated from the words Crabata, Cravata, and Croatian, mentioning the year 1656 as the year of its appearance (26). The French readily accepted the special way of tying a piece of cloth around the neck “a la Croate” and citizens of Paris soon took it to be a symbol of progress (26). During the French revolution, black cravats were worn as a sign of protest against reactionary ideas, and the cravat soon became a symbol of culture and elegance (26). While the French saw the cravat as a decoration and a symbol of progress, for the Croatian it was primarily a symbol of fidelity. According to the popular tradition, wives and girlfriends would give cravats to soldiers as a token of their love, to give them courage and comfort in difficulties and danger. On the other hand, by wearing a cravat, the soldier would show the respect for his beloved. This custom symbolized a man''s loyalty to a woman, as well as established loyalty as a virtue (28). Therefore, through the history, the tie has symbolized loyalty, culture, refinement, style, and elegance; according to Johnson (27) the tie has symbolized social status, occupation/work place, identity, as well as group belonging.Open in a separate windowFigure 1Tie with a traditional Croatian pattern called pleter.In order to examine contemporary symbolical connotations of the tie, we analyzed the frequency of wearing a tie on various occasions among the citizens of Croatia of different age and educational level, as well as the characteristics attributed to men who frequently wear a tie. Since tie is a garment worn usually by men, we analyzed the frequency of wearing a business neckerchief among women.Specific aims of the study were: 1) to establish the frequency of wearing a tie orbusiness neckerchief on different occasions among people of different age and educational levels; 2) to establish whether men who frequently wear a tie were attributed certain characteristics more often than men who wear a tie rarely and to establish whether there were differences in the attribution of these characteristics according to age and educational levels; and 3) to establish whether there are differences between men in the attribution of characteristics to other men who frequently wear a tie with regard to the number of different situations in which men themselves frequently wear a tie. 相似文献The main purpose of this study was to analyze the characteristics of dyspepsia and contributing factors in Montenegrin maintenance hemodialysis patients.
MethodsThe study included 43 patients undergoing hemodialysis with symptoms of dyspepsia and 40 control dyspeptic subjects with preserved kidney function. All subjects underwent an interview about dyspeptic symptoms, physical and biochemical examination, and upper gastrointestinal endoscopy with pathohistological analysis of biopsy specimens.
ResultsEarly satiety, bloating and heartburn were the most common symptoms in hemodialysis patients but without significant difference in frequency in relation to controls. Chronic kidney disease patients had statistically lower concentration of total proteins and albumin (p?<?0.001), as well lower BMI values (p?=?0.002). Despite this, no significant correlation of laboratory parameters with dyspeptic symptoms was found. Pathohistological examination indicated that the most common finding in hemodialysis patients was chronic active gastritis (58%), while chronic atrophic gastritis was significantly more common in dialytic patients (p?=?0.032). Patients on hemodialysis had more frequently atrophy of corpus mucosa, which was positively related to dialysis duration (p?=?0.001) and negatively related to pH values (p?=?0.004) and bicarbonate concentration (p?=?0.049). Helicobacter pylori was considerably more common in patients who underwent shorter time on hemodialysis (p?<?0.001) and had higher values of bicarbonate (p?=?0.037).
ConclusionMaintenance hemodialysis patients are at risk for chronic gastric diseases that correlated with both dialysis vintage and duration.
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