Establishing generalization effects among autistic children

Although elusive, generalization of behavior change in autistic children is essential to obtaining maximum treatment effects. Using behaviorally based treatment and teachers and parents as trainers, generalization effects between home and school were measured on four behaviors: following instructions, washing, wiping bottom, and sharing toys. The results indicate that both settings were effective in establishing generalization. Behaviors treated in one setting generalized to another when children were provided with an opportunity for daily practice. Treatment with practice in other settings is possible in contrast to providing treatment on the same behavior in both settings.The investigators wish to thank the parents, Drs. David Burke, Gloria Leiderman, and the staff of Peninsula Children's Center, Palo Alto, California, for their support and cooperation.     

Review: The epidemiology of lifestyle and risk for type 2 diabetes

Results from ecological and migration studies indicate that a western lifestyle is associated with a higher prevalence of type 2 diabetes. In recent years, there has been a rapid accumulation of data on lifestyle and risk for type 2 diabetes from studies on an individual level. This article gives an overview of the evidence for the effect of different lifestyle factors on risk for type 2 diabetes and discusses various methodological approaches. Randomized intervention studies have shown that changes in diet and physical activity can protect against type 2 diabetes. Diet and physical activity can affect the development of type 2 diabetes through changes of body fatness, but also through other pathways. Findings from cohort studies and trials with intermediary endpoints have indicated that higher consumption of whole grain products and exchanging unsaturated fat for saturated fat may lower risk for type 2 diabetes. In addition, several new promising hypotheses about diet and the development of type 2 diabetes are currently being investigated. Light to moderate alcohol consumption may also reduce risk for type 2 diabetes, whereas high alcohol consumption and cigarette smoking may increase risk for type 2 diabetes. Prevention of weight gain by balancing energy intake and expenditure is of paramount importance to limit current increases in the prevalence of type 2 diabetes. In addition, other effects of lifestyle may play an important role in reducing risk for type 2 diabetes.     

70 μM caffeine treatment enhances in vitro force and power output during cyclic activities in mouse extensor digitorum longus muscle

Caffeine ingestion by human athletes has been found to improve endurance performance primarily acting via the central nervous system as an adenosine receptor antagonist. However, a few studies have implied that the resultant micromolar levels of caffeine in blood plasma (70 M maximum for humans) may directly affect skeletal muscle causing enhanced force production. In the present study, the effects of 70 M caffeine on force and power output in isolated mouse extensor digitorum longus muscle were investigated in vitro at 35°C. Muscle preparations were subjected to cyclical sinusoidal length changes with electrical stimulation conditions optimised to produce maximal work. 70 M caffeine caused a small but significant increase (2–3%) in peak force and net work produced during work loops (where net work represents the work input required to lengthen the muscle subtracted from the work produced during shortening). However, these micromolar caffeine levels did not affect the overall pattern of fatigue or the pattern of recovery from fatigue. Our results suggest that the plasma concentrations found when caffeine is used to enhance athletic performance in human athletes might directly enhance force and power during brief but not prolonged activities. These findings potentially confirm previous in vivo studies, using humans, which implied caffeine ingestion may cause acute improvements in muscle force and power output but would not enhance endurance.     

The use of fluorescence microscopy to visualise homotypic interactions of tomato spotted wilt virus nucleocapsid protein in living cells

Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) were employed to study homotypic protein-protein interactions in living cells. To this end, the nucleocapsid (N) protein of tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) was expressed as a fusion protein with either cyan fluorescent protein (CFP) or yellow fluorescent protein (YFP). Co-expression experiments of the two fusion proteins were carried out in baby hamster kidney (BHK21) cells. Both the wild type and the fusion proteins showed a peri-nuclear localisation pattern and were observed to form aggregates. In sensitised emission experiments, energy transfer was observed to take place from CFP to YFP when the two fluorophores were fused to TSWV N protein, indicating strongly homotypic interaction of the N proteins. This was confirmed by acceptor photobleaching studies as well as by FLIM experiments. All three methods showed interactions taking place, not only in the aggregates in the peri-nuclear region, but also throughout the cytoplasm. These experiments clearly demonstrated the potential of these fluorescence methods for studying the interactions of viral proteins in living cells.     

Financing and delivering oral health care: what can we learn from other countries?

In Canada, the delivery of dental care is left largely to private markets; public funding is limited to targeted groups of the population and substantial variation between provinces exists. In this article, the levels and sources of expenditures on dental care, the levels and distribution of service use associated with these expenditures and the oral health outcomes "produced" in Canada are considered in an international context. The international trend toward an increasing share of public funds for dental care expenditures is not observed in Canada. Instead an increasing reliance on private funds is associated with greater barriers to care, particularly among less prosperous groups. In the absence of oral health data at the national level, the impact of these trends on oral health outcomes is unknown. Several key messages are identified in the comparative analysis to inform any future oral health strategy for Canada.     

Burn specialty teams

Natural disasters have always been a threat. human-caused disasters, especially terrorist acts, are increasing in frequency. Burn centers and providers have an important contribution to make in caring for those injured in these incidents. The most effective way to make a contribution is to act in cooperation with the Federal Disaster Response, which is organized by the Department of Homeland Security and the Federal Emergency Management Agency. It appears that this can be most effectively accomplished through participation in the Burn Specialty Team Program, which has been developed to rapidly augment emergency medical teams with burn expertise.     

The effect of flow changes on the arterial system proximal to an arteriovenous fistula for hemodialysis

Arterial remodeling in response to flow changes is controlled by the endothelium, sensing wall shear stress (SS) changes. The present study focuses on the remodeling capacities of the brachial (BA) and radial artery (RA) of 16 renal failure patients after arteriovenous fistula creation. Pre- and postoperatively at predetermined time-points, diameter, wall thickness and peak and mean SS were assessed. After arteriovenous fistula creation, acute increases in BA SS (p = 0.018) and lumen diameter (p = 0.028) were observed. The diameter further increased in the next year (p = 0.023), whereas BA SS remained unchanged. RA SS and diameter increased acutely (p = 0.005) and remained unaltered after 1 y. RA wall thickness tended to decrease acutely (p = 0.059) and increased steadily during 1 y (p = 0.008). BA and RA diameter acutely increased after an acute SS rise and remained augmented after 1 y. Also, the RA vessel wall thickness enlarged, indicating structural remodeling. After 1 y, however, these changes did not result in SS restoration.