Self-relevant criteria determine the evaluation of outcomes induced by others

The evaluation of whether an outcome is good or bad is reflected in feedback-related negativity (FRN), which is an event-related brain potential (ERP) component that is elicited by bad events. It is still, however, unclear how the FRN reflects the evaluation of outcomes induced by others. We focused on the relationship between self and other, and recorded ERPs during an alternative gambling task performed by two players (participant and virtual player). FRN was elicited not only by the losses of another in a cooperative situation but also by the gains of another in an antagonistic situation. These results indicate that FRN reflects the evaluation on the basis of one's own evaluative criteria, regardless of the monetary outcome for another.     

Supplementary eye field encodes reward prediction error

The outcomes of many decisions are uncertain and therefore need to be evaluated. We studied this evaluation process by recording neuronal activity in the supplementary eye field (SEF) during an oculomotor gambling task. While the monkeys awaited the outcome, SEF neurons represented attributes of the chosen option, namely, its expected value and the uncertainty of this value signal. After the gamble result was revealed, a number of neurons reflected the actual reward outcome. Other neurons evaluated the outcome by encoding the difference between the reward expectation represented during the delay period and the actual reward amount (i.e., the reward prediction error). Thus, SEF encodes not only reward prediction error but also all the components necessary for its computation: the expected and the actual outcome. This suggests that SEF might actively evaluate value-based decisions in the oculomotor domain, independent of other brain regions.     

Rapid electrophysiological brain responses are influenced by both valence and magnitude of monetary rewards

Abstract Negative outcomes, as identified from external feedback, cause a short-latency negative deflection in the event-related potential (ERP) waveform over medial frontal electrode sites. This brain response, which has been called an "error related negativity" (ERN) or "medial frontal negativity" (MFN), may reflect a coarse evaluation of performance outcomes, such as the valence of a reward within a monetary gambling task. Yet, for feedback to lead to the adaptive control of behavior, other information concerning reward outcomes besides experienced valence may also be important. Here, we used a gambling task in which subjects chose between two options that could vary in both outcome valence (gain or loss) and outcome magnitude (larger or smaller). We measured changes in brain ERP responses associated with the presentation of the outcomes. We found, as shown in prior studies, that valence of the chosen outcome has an early effect upon frontal ERPs, with maximal difference observed at approximately 250 msec. However, our results demonstrated that the early ERP responses to outcome feedback were driven not just by valence but by the combination of valence and magnitude for both chosen and unchosen options. Beginning even earlier, at around 150 msec, responses to high-consequence outcomes resulted in a greater, more centrally distributed, positive potential than those involving low-consequence outcomes, independent of valence. Furthermore, the amplitude of these early effects was significantly modulated by the sequence of outcomes in previous trials. These results indicate that early evaluation of feedback goes beyond simple identification of valence-it involves the consideration of multiple factors, including outcome magnitude, context of unchosen options, and prior history.     

Event-related potentials elicited in mothers by their own and unfamiliar infants' faces with crying and smiling expression

Crying by an infant signals an urgent desire for care and protection. Because of the special relationship between a mother and her infant and the signal value of her crying, it is plausible to suggest that the maternal brain efficiently processes crying by infants. In the present study, we examined this hypothesis by measuring event-related potentials in mothers while they observed crying or smiling by their own or unfamiliar infants embedded within a train of neutral expressions. We found that the amplitude of the face-specific N170 component was enlarged for crying regardless of familiarity. The P300 component, which reflects a later cognitive evaluation stage of stimulus processing, was decomposed into functionally distinct components by temporal principal component analysis. The amplitude of the third temporal factor, which corresponds to the earliest portion of the P300, was larger when a mother observed her own infant crying than for the other conditions. Moreover, onset latency of P300 was shortest when mothers observed their own infant crying. These results indicate that mothers process their own infant's crying more efficiently than smiling by their own infant or crying by an unfamiliar infant.     

Problem gamblers exhibit reward hypersensitivity in medial frontal cortex during gambling

Problem gambling (PG) is increasingly conceptualized as an addiction akin to substance abuse, rather than an impulse control disorder, however the mechanism of addiction remains unclear. Neuroimaging investigations have supported a “reward deficiency” hypothesis for PG by suggesting a blunted response to gambling, particularly in the striatum. Here we describe electrophysiological evidence of a hypersensitive response to gambling feedback in problem gamblers. Previous research in healthy participants has shown that feedback during gambling tasks triggers stereotypical neural responses including the Feedback-Related Mediofrontal Negativity (FRN), the feedback-related P300, and an increase in induced theta-band (4-8 Hz) power. We tested the theory that abnormal feedback processing characterizes brain activity in problem gamblers while gambling. EEG was recorded from non-gamblers and self-identified gamblers as they engaged in a computerized version of the Iowa Gambling Task. Feedback about valence (win vs. loss) triggered a FRN in both groups, but in gamblers this was preceded by an early-latency hypersensitive fronto-central difference to feedback. This early FRN was correlated with gambling severity and was localized to medial frontal cortex using distributed source imaging (CLARA). Gamblers also differed in responses to risk, showing a blunted P300 component and less EEG power in the theta band. Here we suggest that a more nuanced interpretation of reward deficiency is called for with respect to PG. For certain aspects of brain function, gamblers may exhibit hypersensitivity to reward feedback more akin to drug sensitization than reward deficiency. Our results also suggest that the neurologically normal brain employs dissociable systems in the processing of feedback from tasks involving risky decision making.     

To do or not to do? Action enlarges the FRN and P300 effects in outcome evaluation

Behavioral studies demonstrate that the outcome following an individual's action evokes stronger emotional responses than the same outcome following inaction. Here we use the event-related potential (ERP) technique to investigate how action affects the brain activity in outcome evaluation. In a gambling task, participants were asked to select a box from three boxes containing monetary reward and then to decide whether they would change their initial choice (i.e., action) or not (i.e., inaction). The feedback-related negativity (FRN), an evoked potential that peaks approximately 250 ms after receipt of feedback information, showed a larger differential effect between loss and win following action than following inaction. Similarly, the P300 showed a larger differential effect following action than following inaction, but now with the responses more positive to the win feedback than to the loss feedback. These results suggest that action may increase the expectancy towards the outcome and/or the motivational/emotional significance of the outcome, and that this action effect can be found in both the FRN and the P300 electrophysiological responses.     

Dopamine dysregulation syndrome, addiction and behavioral changes in Parkinson's disease

Degeneration of the dopaminergic system in Parkinson's disease and longstanding exposure to dopaminergic drugs may cause reward system malfunction. This may manifest as addiction to l-dopa and behavioral disturbances associated with the impulse control system. These disturbances include: gambling, excessive spending (shopping), hypersexuality and binge eating. We included one such patient's personal story to emphasize the devastating consequences of these potentially reversible phenomena: the patient describes in his own words how gambling induced by an exposure dopamine agonist therapy significantly worsened his disease-related difficulties.     

Pain modulates neural responses to reward in the medial prefrontal cortex

Pain has been found to promote reward‐seeking behaviors, which might be a consequence of modulated brain activities in the reward neural circuitry in a painful state. The present study investigated how pain affected reward processing and reward‐related neural activities using fMRI technique. A total of 50 healthy participants were recruited and used for data analyses, with half being treated with topical capsaicin cream and the other half with hand cream (treatment: pain or control). The participants were asked to perform a card‐guessing game when their brain activities responding to feedbacks (outcome: win or loss) were recorded. Behavioral results showed that participants in pain group overestimated their correct choices in the card‐guess game. Whole‐brain fMRI analysis revealed that the main effect of outcome (win vs. loss) activated a typical network of the reward neural circuitry, including the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and the bilateral nucleus accumbens (NAcc). Importantly, the region of interest analysis revealed a significant interaction of treatment and outcome in the mPFC, with increased mPFC neural activity responding to win outcome in pain condition. Moreover, the functional connectivity between the mPFC and the NAcc was decreased in pain condition. We conclude that the pain‐induced modulation of the mPFC activity could result in alterations of both the emotional response to and the cognitive evaluation of reward.     

Reward-related neural responses are dependent on the beneficiary

Prior studies have suggested that positive social interactions are experienced as rewarding. Yet, it is not well understood how social relationships influence neural responses to other persons’ gains. In this study, we investigated neural responses during a gambling task in which healthy participants (N = 31; 18 females) could win or lose money for themselves, their best friend or a disliked other (antagonist). At the moment of receiving outcome, person-related activity was observed in the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC), precuneus and temporal parietal junction (TPJ), showing higher activity for friends and antagonists than for self, and this activity was independent of outcome. The only region showing an interaction between the person-participants played for and outcome was the ventral striatum. Specifically, the striatum was more active following gains than losses for self and friends, whereas for the antagonist this pattern was reversed. Together, these results show that, in a context with social and reward information, social aspects are processed in brain regions associated with social cognition (mPFC, TPJ), and reward aspects are processed in primary reward areas (striatum). Furthermore, there is an interaction of social and reward information in the striatum, such that reward-related activity was dependent on social relationship.     

Dysfunctional reward processing in male alcoholics: An ERP study during a gambling task

Objective

A dysfunctional neural reward system has been shown to be associated with alcoholism. The current study aims to examine reward processing in male alcoholics by using event-related potentials (ERPs) as well as behavioral measures of impulsivity and risk-taking.

Methods

Outcome-related negativity (ORN/N2) and positivity (ORP/P3) derived from a single outcome gambling task were analyzed using a mixed model procedure. Current density was compared across groups and outcomes using standardized low resolution electromagnetic tomography (sLORETA). Behavioral scores were also compared across groups. Correlations of ERP factors with behavioral and impulsivity factors were also analyzed.

Results

Alcoholics showed significantly lower amplitude than controls during all outcome conditions for the ORP component and decreased amplitude during the loss conditions for the ORN component. Within conditions, gain produced higher amplitudes than loss conditions. Topographically, both groups had an anterior focus during loss conditions and posterior maxima during gain conditions, especially for the ORN component. Decreased ORP current density at cingulate gyrus and less negative ORN current density at sensory and motor areas characterized the alcoholics. Alcoholics had higher levels of impulsivity and risk-taking features than controls.

Conclusions

Deficient outcome/reward processing and increased impulsivity and risk-taking observed in alcoholics may be at least partly due to reward deficiency and/or dysfunctional reward circuitry in the brain, suggesting that alcoholism can be considered as part of the cluster of the reward deficiency syndrome (RDS).     

A Philosopher’s Reflections on the Discovery of Mirror Neurons

Mirror neurons fire both when a primate executes a transitive action directed toward a target (e.g., grasping) and when he observes the same action performed by another. According to the prevalent interpretation, action‐mirroring is a process of interpersonal neural similarity whereby an observer maps the agent’s perceived movements onto her own motor repertoire. Furthermore, ever since Gallese and Goldman’s (1998) influential paper, action‐mirroring has been linked to third‐person mindreading on the grounds that it enables an observer to represent the agent’s intention. In this paper, I criticize the prevalent interpretation on two grounds. First, action‐mirroring could not result in interpersonal neural similarity unless there was a single mechanism active at different times in a single brain during the execution and the perception of acts of grasping. Second, such a neural mechanism is better conceived as underlying the possession of the concept of grasping than as a basis for mindreading.     

Context-based interpersonal relationship modulates social comparison between outcomes: an event-related potential study

Social comparison is a common behavior that largely determines people’s experience of decision outcome. Previous research has showed that interpersonal relationship plays a pivotal role in social comparison. In the current study, we investigated whether the manipulation of context-based relationship would affect participants’ comparison of self-outcome and other-outcome. Participants first finished a trust game with likeable (dislikeable) partner and then they were involved in a gambling task and observed the outcomes for themselves and for partners. According to self-reports, participants were more satisfied with likeable partner’s gains than losses only when they received gains, but they were always more satisfied with dislikeable player’s losses compared to gains. Event-related potentials including the feedback-related negativity (FRN), P3 and late positive component (LPC) were sensitive to context-based relationship. Specifically, the prediction error signal (indexed by the FRN) was largest when participants received losses but dislikeable player received gains. Meanwhile, the P3 indicates that participants had stronger motivation to outperform dislikeable player. Finally, the LPC was larger when participants received the same outcomes with dislikeable players. In general, our results support the key point of the self-evaluation maintenance model that personal closeness modulates subjective sensitivity when drawing a comparison of one’s outcomes with other’s outcomes.     

Topography, power, and current source density of theta oscillations during reward processing as markers for alcohol dependence

Recent studies have linked alcoholism with a dysfunctional neural reward system. Although several electrophysiological studies have explored reward processing in healthy individuals, such studies in alcohol-dependent individuals are quite rare. The present study examines theta oscillations during reward processing in abstinent alcoholics. The electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded in 38 abstinent alcoholics and 38 healthy controls as they performed a single outcome gambling task, which involved outcomes of either loss or gain of an amount (10 or 50￠) that was bet. Event-related theta band (3.0-7.0 Hz) power following each outcome stimulus was computed using the S-transform method. Theta power at the time window of the outcome-related negativity (ORN) and positivity (ORP) (200-500 ms) was compared across groups and outcome conditions. Additionally, behavioral data of impulsivity and task performance were analyzed. The alcoholic group showed significantly decreased theta power during reward processing compared to controls. Current source density (CSD) maps of alcoholics revealed weaker and diffuse source activity for all conditions and weaker bilateral prefrontal sources during the Loss 50 condition when compared with controls who manifested stronger and focused midline sources. Furthermore, alcoholics exhibited increased impulsivity and risk-taking on the behavioral measures. A strong association between reduced anterior theta power and impulsive task-performance was observed. It is suggested that decreased power and weaker and diffuse CSD in alcoholics may be due to dysfunctional neural reward circuitry. The relationship among alcoholism, theta oscillations, reward processing, and impulsivity could offer clues to understand brain circuitries that mediate reward processing and inhibitory control.     

Linking Gambling and Trauma: A Phenomenological Hermeneutic Case Study Using Almaas’ Transformation of Narcissism Approach

The purpose of this article is to examine the phenomenon of pathological gambling and addiction from the perspective of writer and teacher A.H Almaas. By drawing on his Diamond Mind approach we trace the origin of addictive behaviors and pathological gambling to narcissistic wounding, which constitutes the loss of connection with the Essential Identity. A phenomenological hermeneutic methodology was applied in the research process in which Penny, the subject of this case study, willingly shared her life journey through addiction. A thematic analysis clustered into 5 themes revealed a link between her experiences of childhood trauma, addiction, pathological gambling, and the manifestation of fundamental narcissism.     

Goal-striving tendencies moderate the relationship between reward-related brain function and peripheral inflammation

Inflammation is associated with both lower and higher activity in brain regions that process rewarding stimuli. How can both low and high sensitivity to rewards be associated with higher inflammation? We propose that one potential mechanism underlying these apparently conflicting findings pertains to how people pursue goals in their environment. This prediction is based on evidence that both an inability to disengage from unattainable goals and low interest in and pursuit of important life goals are associated with poor health outcomes, including inflammation. Accordingly, this study examined the relationship between reward-related brain function and peripheral inflammation among individuals with different levels of ambitious goal-striving tendencies. Eighty-three participants completed an ambitious goal-striving tendency measure, an fMRI Monetary Incentive Delay task assessing orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and nucleus accumbens (NAc) activation during reward anticipation and outcome, and a venous blood draw to assess the inflammatory biomarkers interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and C-reactive protein, from which we computed an inflammation composite score. We observed a reward anticipation by goal-striving interaction on inflammation, such that high OFC and NAc activation to reward anticipation (but not outcome) were associated with more inflammation, among high goal-striving individuals. By contrast, low NAc activation during reward anticipation (but not outcome) was associated with more inflammation, among low goal-striving individuals. The current study provides further evidence that both blunted and elevated reward function can be associated with inflammation. It also highlights the role that goal-striving tendencies may play in moderating the relationship between neural reward anticipation and inflammation.     

The feedback-related negativity is modulated by feedback probability in observational learning

The feedback-related negativity (FRN), an event-related potentials (ERPs) component reflecting activity of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), has been shown to be modulated by feedback expectancy following active choices in feedback-based learning tasks. A general reduction of FRN amplitude has been described in observational feedback learning, raising the question whether FRN amplitude is modulated in a similar way in this type of learning. The present study investigated whether the FRN and the P300 - a second ERP component related to feedback processing - are modulated by feedback probability in observational learning. Thirty-two subjects participated in the experiment. They observed a virtual person choosing between two symbols and receiving positive or negative feedback. Learning about stimulus-specific feedback probabilities was assessed in active test trials without feedback. In addition, the bias to learn from positive or negative feedback and - in a subsample of 17 subjects - empathy scores were obtained. General FRN and P300 modulations by feedback probability were found across all subjects. Only for the FRN in learners, an interaction between probability and valence was observed. Larger FRN amplitudes for negative relative to positive feedback only emerged for the lowest outcome probability. The results show that feedback expectancy modulates FRN amplitude also in observational learning, suggesting a similar ACC function as in active learning. On the other hand, the modulation is only seen for very low feedback expectancy, which suggests that brain regions other than those of the reward system contribute to feedback processing in an observation setting.     

Learning-related changes in reward expectancy are reflected in the feedback-related negativity

The feedback-related negativity (FRN) has been hypothesized to be linked to reward-based learning. While many studies have shown that the FRN only occurs in response to unexpected negative outcomes, the relationship between the magnitude of negative prediction errors and FRN amplitude remains a matter of debate. The present study aimed to elucidate this relationship with a new behavioural procedure that allowed subjects to predict precise reward probabilities by learning an explicit rule. Insight into the rule did not only influence subjects' choice behaviour, but also outcome-related event-related potentials. After subjects had learned the rule, the FRN amplitude difference between non-reward and reward mirrored the magnitude of the negative prediction error, i.e. it was larger for less likely negative outcomes. Source analysis linked this effect to the anterior cingulate cortex. P300 amplitude was also modulated by outcome valence and expectancy. It was larger for positive and unexpected outcomes. It remains to be clarified, however, whether the P300 reflects a positive prediction error.     

Anterior asymetrical alpha activity predicts Iowa gambling performance: distinctly but reversed

Animal research indicates that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) plays a crucial role in decision making. In concordance, deficits in decision making have been observed in human patients with damage to the PFC. Contemporary accounts of decision making suggest that emotion guides the process of decision making by ways of providing for reward-punishment contingencies. A task capable of assessing the influence of reward and punishment on decision making is the Iowa gambling task. In this task decisions become motivated by inherent punishment and reward schedules. Insensitivity for punishment together with a strong reward dependency results in risk taking, which is in the gambling task the disadvantageous strategy. Interestingly, the processing of punishment and reward is argued to be lateralized over the right and left PFC, respectively. Here we investigated whether more relative left compared to right-sided frontal brain activity (left-sided dominance) quantified as reduced alpha (8-12 Hz) activity in the electroencephalogram (EEG) would lead to a more risky, disadvantageous pattern of decision making. Contrary to what was expected, relatively more right compared to left frontal brain activity was strongly associated with the disadvantageous strategy. The results are discussed in terms of recent theoretical accounts which argue that the functional interpretation of baseline frontal alpha activity depends on the mental operation involved and does not necessarily imply inactivity.     

L’intime conviction des magistrats : subjectivation pénale et conflit subjectif dans un cas d’inceste

In the French law tradition, jurors and judges have to use their intimate conviction to judge not only the reality of the act, but also the intention of the author and his/her spirit. This article builds upon the logic and confrontation of elements of prosecution and defense; deriving along with other motifs from the necessary personnal implication of the magistrate in the construction of his or her judgement and continued support of it. However, adressing the process of intimate conviction from a psychoanalytic perspective exposes third level of conflict: one between mental cognitions; one between trust and distrust regarding one's own representations, and another regarding one's own affective tendencies, which have to keep away. Our objective is to study how the judges, subjectively, appropriate or not the conflict induced by legal texts on intimate conviction. Drawing on an analysis of interviews with judges about a rape case that occurred within a family, with no other element of proof than the weight of the testimony and the avowal of the victim, we extrapolate how the subjectivation of the criminal act is dependent upon the relationship judge had with his or her own capacity to withstand the psychic conflict it induces.