Alcoholic father, adolescent drug abuse and protective factors]

OBJECTIVES: To compare the children of alcoholic fathers who do not develop alcohol or drug problems in adolescence (that is, resilient children) to those who do, focusing on characteristics of personality and family. Various behavioural traits are examined as resilience factors, as are certain educational practices of the parents. METHOD: Resilience factors were studied throughout childhood, from age 6 to 12 years. The presence or absence of alcohol or drug problems was assessed at the age of 15 or 16 years. RESULTS: Close to 1000 children of both sexes participated in the study. As expected, paternal alcoholism was an important risk factor in the development of substance abuse problems in adolescence. The risk, however, diminishes with personality traits such as low thrill-seeking behaviour and a propensity for inhibition. These traits cannot be considered resilience factors, however, because their effect is as present in children of nonalcoholic fathers as in children of alcoholic fathers. Parental supervision proves to be a protective influence and was found to reduce the risk of substance abuse in children of alcoholic fathers. CONCLUSION: These results indicate that, above and beyond personality variables, the presence of an alcoholic father constitutes a high risk factor for adolescent drug addiction. Nevertheless, parental supervision may attenuate this risk and is therefore an important means of intervention.     

Child behaviour problems and partner mental health as correlates of stress in mothers and fathers of children with autism

BACKGROUND: Previous research has suggested that the mothers and fathers of children with disabilities experience stress differently. Although there has been a great deal of research exploring how children affect parents, there have been many fewer studies of the interrelationships between mothers' and fathers' psychological well-being. METHODS: Eighteen married couples who were the parents of children with autism reported on their stress and their general mental health (i.e. anxiety and depression). Teachers rated the behaviour problems of the children with autism. RESULTS: Mothers and fathers did not differ in their levels of stress and depression, but mothers reported more anxiety than fathers. Partial correlation analyses revealed that child behaviour problems and fathers' mental health were associated with mothers' stress. However, neither child behaviour problems or mothers' mental health was associated with fathers' stress. CONCLUSIONS: Although requiring replication, the results suggest that stress in mothers of children with disabilities may be affected by the psychological health of other family members, whereas fathers' stress is affected more by other factors. Methodological and conceptual issues, and the practical implications of these results are discussed.     

Fathers' and mothers' perceptions of their child and maternal depressive symptoms

Fathers' reports concerning their children have seldom been considered in the previous studies on maternal depression and child development. The literature on parental reports in general suggests that discrepancies in mothers' and fathers' perceptions are associated with the psychological state of the parent and the gender of the child. As part of a prospective follow-up study, fathers' and mothers' perceptions of children's social competence and behavioural/emotional problems were assessed by the Child Behavior Checklists (CBCLs) when the firstborn children were 8-9 years old. The depressive symptoms of the mothers were screened by the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) at the same time point. The level of children's social competence and behavioural/emotional problems reported by the fathers were analysed by background factors. The reports of both parents were explored by the gender of the child and by the presence of maternal depressive symptoms. The concordance of parental reports concerning child's social competence was high, but fathers usually reported lower problem levels than mothers, particularly for boys' problems. The presence of maternal depressive symptoms was associated with child's high problem levels from both fathers' and mothers' perspective. Parental ratings of children's externalizing problems in particular were associated with high maternal depressive symptom level.     

Prenatal and postnatal psychological symptoms of parents and family functioning: the impact on child emotional and behavioural problems

Although relations of various parental psychological problems and family functioning with child development are well documented, it remains unclear whether specific prenatal or specific postnatal risk factors are independently associated with child emotional and behavioural problems, or whether observed associations can be explained by general parental psychopathology. Using a stepwise approach, we examined the effects of prenatal and postnatal parental depressive symptoms, prenatal and postnatal hostility of the parents, as well as prenatal family functioning on the risk of child emotional and behavioural problems. This study was embedded in Generation R: a population-based cohort from foetal life onwards. Mothers and fathers of 2,698 children provided information about depressive symptoms, symptoms of hostility and family functioning during pregnancy and 3 years after birth. Mother and father each reported on child behaviour when the child was 3 years old. Parental depressive symptoms increased the risk of child emotional and behavioural problems, but this increase was explained by postnatal parental hostile behaviour. Postnatal symptoms of hostility of mothers (OR = 1.34, p value <0.001) and postnatal symptoms of hostility of fathers (OR = 1.30, p value <0.001) each contributed independently to the risk of child emotional and behavioural problems. Postnatal parental hostility is associated with an increased risk of child emotional and behavioural problems, independent of parental depressive symptoms. These findings suggest that prevention and intervention strategies should focus on psychological symptoms of both mothers and fathers, in particular on hostile behaviour, in families with young children.     

The association of parental alcohol abuse and depression with severe emotional and behavioural problems in adolescents: a clinical study

BACKGROUND: Earlier studies have indicated associations between parental psychiatric problems, such as depression, and substance abuse and adolescent problems. AIMS: This study aimed to determine whether parental psychiatric problems are associated with problems and problem behaviour in adolescents in a clinical sample. METHODS: The study subjects were 70 outpatient adolescents (age 13-18 years, boys 30%) and their parents. The adolescents were assessed using the structural clinical interview for DSM-III-R (SCID) and a semi-structured questionnaire, and the parents were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. RESULTS: Maternal alcohol abuse and depression were associated with serious problems, especially among girls, and paternal alcohol abuse was associated with adolescent health-compromising behaviour. Maternal depression and alcohol abuse had no association with adolescent health-compromising behaviour. Maternal depression without alcohol abuse was associated with the diagnosis of major depressive disorder in adolescents, but not with other adolescent problems, while paternal depression without alcohol abuse was not associated with any adolescent problems. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the small study sample, these findings indicate that parental psychiatric problems and alcohol abuse are correlated with adolescent psychological problems and should be considered and assessed when assessing adolescents.     

The handicapped child: psychological effects of parental, marital, and sibling relationships.

Although the nature and severity of a handicapping condition are not the sole determinants of family functioning, the presence of a child with a pervasive developmental disorder has a significant effect on family members. Maternal mental health suffers, and the resulting depression affects her role as mother and marriage partner. Unlike other handicapping conditions with obvious physical stigmata, the invisible handicap of the autistic child and the frequent delay in diagnosis contribute to the mother's self-doubt about her parental competence. While the impact on paternal psychological health is less, the fathers of autistic children are nevertheless highly stressed and appear to be particularly vulnerable to the stress generated by these difficult children. Living within this family climate, the risks for emotional and behavioral problems for siblings must be evaluated, along with their intrinsic strengths, to plan preventive interventions for these children. Effective work with these families requires an understanding of the evolution of family system problems and their dynamic and reciprocal interaction over time.     

Parental substance use disorder and child abuse: risk factors for child maltreatment?

Although the literature consistently shows an association between parental substance use disorders (SUDs) and child abuse, it is unknown what factors discern non-abusive and abusive parents with SUDs. This study aims to investigate which specific risk factors are associated with child abuse in clinically treated parents with SUDs in the Netherlands. It examines two groups of parents with SUDs in a clinical setting, with and without known instances of child abuse. These groups were compared on SUD-related factors such as the type and severity of the SUDs, and variables addressing psychological disability such as comorbid diagnoses and quality of life. Other than a marginally significant difference in severity of addiction and a lower mean age of the parents in the child abuse group, no significant differences were found. The small sample size and the inherent difficulty of studying SUDs in a clinical sample is likely to have affected the results.     

Predictors of stress in mothers and fathers of children with fragile X syndrome

This study examined parental and family stress and functioning where there is a child with fragile X syndrome. Mothers and fathers in 40 families were asked about their child with fragile X syndrome, family supports, their psychological stress, the marital relationship, and their family stress. Results indicate parents were well adjusted in terms of their levels of psychological stress and in their marital relationships, however, parents reported high levels of family stress. Mothers and fathers were found to experience similar levels of stress and to report similar levels of satisfaction with supports. Stress was predicted by different variables in mothers and fathers, suggesting that different processes underlie their experiences. The strongest predictor of maternal stress was the level of marital satisfaction while the strongest predictor of paternal stress was the level of the child's adaptive skills.     

Multilevel approach to gender differences in adaptation in father-mother dyads parenting individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder

BackgroundMost studies of gender differences in the ASD literature present methodological limitations regarding the treatment of dyadic data. This work explored gender differences in the psychological adaptation of a sample of Spanish fathers and mothers of individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) using a multilevel modeling approach (MLM) that accounts for nested data.MethodQuestionnaires including different adaptation measures were completed by 120 father-mother dyads raising individuals with ASD. We designed a two-level model (parents nested in dyads) with three predictor variables at level 1 (parent gender, parent age, and perception of child’s behavior problems) and four predictor variables at level 2 (child age, family income, ASD severity, and time since diagnosis) to examine the influence of these variables on negative and positive psychological outcomes (stress, anxiety, depression, and psychological well-being).ResultsMothers experienced higher levels of stress and anxiety than fathers, even after controlling for interdependence and sociodemographic factors. ASD severity was a significant predictor of both progenitors’ stress and well-being, and family income was also related to psychological well-being, although no gender differences were observed in the way these variables are related to parental outcomes.ConclusionsProfessionals should offer parents support to adjust expectations according to their child’s ASD severity given its relationship to parental stress and well-being. Considering that mothers experience higher levels of stress and anxiety than fathers, clinicians should encourage maternal protective factors. Finally, governments should consider new policies aiming to support ASD families’ treatment expenses.     

Negative Life Events in Childhood,Psychological Problems and Suicide Attempts in Adulthood: A Matched Case-Control Study

The purpose of the study was to investigate relations between childhood negative life events (parental loss, parental mental illness and parental abuse), adult psychological problems (depression, hopelessness, low self-esteem, low self-appraised problem-solving capacity, and alcohol problems) and suicidal behavior. A matched case control design was applied (total N =321). Risk of suicide attempt was found to be related to childhood negative life events as well as to psychological problems of adulthood. Moreover, the effects of childhood events were found to be partially mediated through the psychological problems, and gender-specific risk pathways were identified. For men, the central pathway involved parental mental illness during childhood and low self-esteem in adulthood. For women, childhood abuse, adulthood depression and alcohol problems appeared to constitute central factors. Additionally, effects were found for previous suicide attempts.