沿海开发城市交通性颅脑损伤的流行特点及救治

目的探讨当今沿海开放卫星城市的交通性颅脑损伤的流行病学特点及救治。方法3918例交通性颅脑损伤患者填写《交通性颅脑损伤流行病学调查》表，内容包括年龄、受伤机制、时间分布、伤情资料、治疗方式及治疗结果等。表格均由本科神经外科医师复审，以确保材料的准确性。所取的数据均经质控验证。结果①颅脑损伤的高危年龄阶段为15～44岁。②摩托车占交通肇事的53．2％，为主要车型。③颅脑损伤下半年明显高于上半年。④1d内的高峰时间为9：00、10：00、18：00、20：00和21：00。⑤院前行气管插管是后继抢救成功的关键。结论交通性颅脑损伤可通过有效的干预措施加以防范。     

中、老年人外伤性迟发性颅内血肿151例临床分析

目的 探讨中、老年外伤性迟发性颅内血肿(DTICH)临床特点、伴随危险因素及诊疗过程中注意问题。方法 回顾分析15l例中老年DTICH病例的临床和影像学资料。结果DTICH占中老年颅脑损伤病人的77．8％，死亡率为25．2％。结论 对于中老年颅脑损伤患应密切观察病情变化，警惕DTICH的发生，及时作出诊断、治疗。DTICH多出现于颅脑损伤后72h内或清除其它颅内血肿后突然出现，高峰期是伤后24h。     

颅脑损伤高压氧治疗时机探讨

目的探讨不同时期高压氧治疗颅脑损伤对预后的影响。方法选取我院应用高压氧治疗的颅脑损伤患者，按照开始治疗时间不同分为两组，其余治疗措施相同，出院时评定预后。结果早期治疗组(ETG)：恢复良好82(74．5％)，轻残14(12．7％)，重残8(7．3％)，死亡6(5．5％)；晚期治疗组(LTG)：恢复良好40(44．9％)，轻残21(23．6％)，重残15(16．9％)，死亡13(14．6％)，两组相比有显著性差异(P＜0．05)。结论ETG疗效较LTG明显提高，提示高压氧治疗颅脑损伤时间越早，预后越好。     

386例重型颅脑损伤病人的救治

目的总结386例重型颅脑损伤病人的救治经验。方法对386例GCS≤8分重型颅脑损伤病人进行回顾性分析。结果出院时按COS评定386例病人中恢复良好168例(43．5％)，中残62例(16．1％)，重残25例(6．5％)，植物生存10例(2、6％)，死亡121例(31．3％)。结论重型颅脑损伤病人早期有效治疗是降低死亡率。提高生存质量的关键。     

迟发性外伤性颅内血肿122例临床分析

目的 探讨迟发性外伤性颅内血肿(DTIH)的临床特点、诱发因素及防治措施。方法 对我科自2001-01-2003-06收治的122例DTIH病人的临床及影像学资料进行回顾性分析。结果 DTIH占颅脑损伤病人的8．97％，死亡率23．8％。占同期颅脑损伤术中急性脑膨出病因的35．7％。中老年患者占DTIH患者的45．9%。DTIH发生在24h内占82％，72h内占97．5％。结论 DTIH多发生在颅脑损伤后72h内，伤后24h内发生率较高。多见于中老年患者。DTIH是颅脑损伤术中发生急性脑膨出的重要原因。早期诊断和早期治疗是预后良好的关键。     

小儿重型颅脑损伤临床特点分析

目的 分析总结小儿重型颅脑损伤的临床特点。方法 回顾性研究小儿重型颅脑损伤患的致伤原因、损伤类型、临床表现，以及救治方法和预后状况。结果 本组共458例，男性317例，女性141例。年龄1个月～15岁。车祸伤185例，坠落伤159例，二合计占75．1％。闭合性颅脑损伤357例，开放性颅脑损伤101例。合并颅内血肿162例(35．4％)；并发颅骨骨折221例，其中凹陷骨折82例。全组均有不同程度的意识障碍，有生命体征变化253例(55．2％)；癫痫发作107例(23．4％)。367例施行血肿清除、去骨瓣减压、凹陷骨折复位术等手术治疗，另外91例保守治疗。恢复良好337例(73．6％)；中残27例(5．9%)；重残12例(2．6％)；植物生存7例(1．5％)；死亡75例(16．4％)。结论 小儿重型颅脑损伤的主要临床特点是原发性脑损伤表现重；生命体征紊乱明显；颅骨凹陷骨折和颅缝分离多见；囟门闭合前后临床特征不同；对冲性颅内血肿发生率低；癫痫发生率高；预后较成人好。     

颅脑损伤致双瞳散大90例救治体会

目的回顾性分析颅脑损伤致双瞳散大的抢救治疗结果，进一步加深认识并总结经验。方法收集我院自1998-08—2000-07以来因颅脑损伤致双瞳散大的病人90例，分析抢救治疗结果及体会。结果本组90例，存活29例(32．2％)，死亡61例(67．8％)；手术治疗58例，存活28例(48．3％)，非手术32例，仅有1例存活(3．1％)；34例以脑挫裂伤、硬膜下薄层血肿、脑肿胀为主，存活9例(26．5％)，24例以硬膜外血肿为主，存活19例(79．2％)，15例(78．9％)恢复良好。结论颅脑损伤致双瞳散大尽管病情极为危重，死亡率高，但并非等于不治，及时术前抢救，早期手术充分减压，适时气管切开，正确处理复合伤及并发症是成功的关键。     

重型颅脑损伤救治中早期康复治疗及临床意义

目的 探讨重型颅脑损伤患者早期康复治疗的效果。方法 124例颅脑损伤患者，其中38例原发性脑干损伤．51例脑挫伤，35例急性颅内血肿，在接受治疗的三周之内进行康复指导和治疗。结果 56例(45．2％)重新获得参与社会工作的能力，59例(47．6％)病人达到生活自理或部分自理，9例(7．2％)病人长期卧床和植物生存。结论 早期康复治疗在促进重型颅脑损伤患者的康复工作中起着重要作用，对于提高患者的生活质量、预防并发症有着明显的作用。     

高原地区(拉萨)颅脑交通伤的特点及救治分析

目的：探讨现代高原交通事故所致颅脑伤的特点及治疗措施。方法：回顾性分析本科近7年间收治的拉萨市交通事故所致颅脑伤656例。其中男性532例，女性124例；平均年龄32．6岁。本组轻型颅脑损伤123例．中型241例，重型292例。结果：汽车交通事故为本组病例颅脑损伤的主要交通事故原因，出租车为肇事高发车群。高发时间在7～9月份。本组手术治疗273例；非手术治疗383例。其中轻型颅脑损伤无一例重残或死亡；中型颅脑损伤重残42例，死亡12例，重残、死亡率为8．2％；重型颅脑损伤重残66例，死亡123例，重残、死亡率为28．8％。结论：(1)拉萨市出租车肇事是造成颅脑交通伤的重要原凶，7～9月为高发时间；(2)高原低氧环境，常致颅脑损伤伤情加重，进展快．特点是伤情重，合并伤多，死亡及致残率高。尽早清除颅内血肿，去大骨瓣减压，亚低温治疗，维持内环境稳定及防治并发症等措施，可改善重型颅脑损伤的预后。     

汶川地震致颅脑损伤流行病学和临床特点荟萃分析

目的 总结汶川地震致颅脑损伤( ERHI)患者的流行病学特征及临床特点.方法 对2008年至2011年公开发表的汶川地震致颅脑创伤相关研究文献进行荟萃分析和再评价.结果 共检索文献68篇,根据录入标准18篇论文进入荟萃分析,样本涉及四川、陕西、甘肃3省,涵盖地震极重灾区和重灾区26个,统计地震伤员32 415人,其中颅脑损伤5 559人(占17.1％).男:女=1.53:1.其中轻型ERHI占69.4％,中型21.0％,重型9.6％;开放性颅脑损伤占17.7％;复合伤占54.7％;ERHI病死率为0.16％.结论 汶川地震ERHI具有致伤机制复杂,伤情变化快,合并损伤多等特点,提高各级医院应对突发灾害能力,对提高抢救存活率,降低致残率、病死率具有重要意义.     

Diagnostic Difficulties and Treatment Implications

Summary: Differentiation between types of epileptic seizures has been aided in recent years by the introduction of intensive neurodiagnostic techniques and the development of increasingly detailed classification systems. Paradoxically, these developments have not simplified the task of matching the appropriate antiepileptic drug to a particular seizure type. It is reasonable to assume that anticonvulsant drugs will have different effects on different types of seizures, but faulty, circular reasoning can enter the picture if one also assumes that responses of seizures to different drugs signify different seizure types. There are several examples of differential diagnoses that can fall prey to this problem, including the diagnosis between partial seizures with secondary generalization and generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the diagnosis between complex partial seizures and absence seizures with automatisms, among others. Considerations of etiology in future classification systems can further complicate the problem: should one then choose an anticonvulsant drug on the basis of individual seizure type or on the basis of the type of epilepsy? Ramifications of this issue extend even to the drug approval process. Official sanction is not given for use of a drug for a seizure type not included in the original efficacy studies, even if later scientific evidence shows that seizure type to be related to a type that is included. New trials must be undertaken. These problems arise from how we choose to classify seizures.     

Cognitive Dysfunction Associated with Antiepileptic Drug Therapy

Summary: Epilepsy is frequently associated with cognitive dysfunction. However, the reasons for this correlation are unclear. Possible influential factors include patient age; duration, frequency, etiology, and type of seizures; hereditary factors; psychosocial issues; and antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy. Whereas many of these factors are beyond the physician's control, AED therapy is one element that can be addressed in treatment decisions by recognizing the potential cognitive effects of particular AEDs. For example, phenobarbital impairs memory and concentration; phenytoin affects attention, problem solving ability, and performance of visuomotor tasks. In contrast, carbamazepine may affect concentration, while valproate would appear to have minimal effects on cognition. Moreover, cognitive effects of AEDs are amplified with coadministration of multiple anticonvulsants (polytherapy). A review of studies on the cognitive effects of monotherapy with AEDs, as opposed to those of polytherapy, provides evidence that drug-related cognitive dysfunction can be reversed if patients are switched to a simpler therapeutic regimen. Future research should be directed toward developing reliable measures for assessing and monitoring cognition, and understanding the particular cognitive side effects of each AED. Physicians also need to revise their opinions about which side effects are "tolerable" for epileptic patients.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy in Adults With Partial and Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures

Summary: Carbamazepine and phenytoin are drugs of choice in initial monotherapy for adult partial and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures. These designations reflect the results of the Veterans Administration Epilepsy Cooperative Study Group of 1985. An earlier comparative study of carbamazepine and phenytoin by Ramsay and associates found both drugs equally effective in controlling new-onset seizures. Among the advantages of carbamazepine is that it causes relatively few cognitive and dysmorphic side effects. Its disadvantages are its unavailability in parenteral formulation and its metabolic autoinduction. The latter must be compensated for by planned dosage increases to maintain therapeutic plasma steady-state levels during the first 2 or 3 months of treatment. Carbamazepine is judged a drug of choice in the treatment of these secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the drug of choice in children, adolescents, and women susceptible to the dysmorphic side effects associated with other anticonvulsant agents.     

Etiologic and Preventive Aspects of Epilepsy in the Child–Bridging the Gap Between Laboratory and Clinic

Summary: Four broad categories of basic phenomena are pertinent to developing ways to prevent epilepsy. These include mechanisms of epileptogenesis, ictal initiation and temporary entrainment by the seizure discharge of normally functioning brain, seizure propagation, and control mechanisms that function both to restrain the cascade of epileptic events culminating in a seizure and to arrest the epileptic event and restore the interictal state. In newborns and children, hypoxia-ischemia is a major factor leading to epileptogenesis, and several schemes are proposed to classify, quantify, and prevent hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Control mechanisms must be better understood in order to develop prophylactic recommendations for epilepsy, and an experimental model of "kindling antagonism" may increase our understanding of these. Programs of prevention of seizures in children will evolve only if basic researchers and clinicians work productively together to develop an adequate understanding of factors important in epileptogenesis and antiepileptogenic control mechanisms.     

Predisposing and Causative Factors in Childhood Epilepsy

Summary: We review information from large studies of defined populations, examining the role of known factors and especially of prenatal and perinatal factors in contributing to nonfebrile seizure disorders of early childhood. We depend especially, but not exclusively, on the recently completed analyses from the Collaborative Perinatal Project of the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke, the NCPP. About 4% of children in the NCPP who had at least one non-febrile nonsymptomatic seizure by the age of 7 years had a previous seizure during acute neurologic illness, such as meningitis or during the acute illness after trauma. Many such seizures should potentially be preventable. Of children with seizures, 10% had had a neonatal seizure and 13% had had a febrile seizure. Among the hundreds of prenatal and perinatal factors explored as predictors of childhood seizure disorders, the principal predictors identified were congenital malformations of the fetus, cerebral and noncerebral; family history of certain neurologic disorders; and neonatal seizures. In agreement with the British National Child Development Study, labor and delivery factors in the NCPP appeared to contribute very little to childhood seizure disorders. Maldevelopment, rather than damage at birth to an initially intact nervous system, appeared to be the more common mechanism. Most seizure disorders of early childhood remained unexplained by the large set of prenatal and perinatal characteristics examined.     

Treatment Considerations in Anticonvulsant Monotherapy

Summary: The long-standing practice of polypharmacy in treating epilepsy is giving way to use of monotherapy. Monotherapy can improve seizure control as well as reduce the risk of serious idiosyncratic reactions, dose-related side effects, and complex drug interactions. Monotherapy also offers improved compliance and cost-effectiveness. The basis of monotherapy is accurate diagnosis and assessment of the patient's seizure type(s), followed by selection of a single appropriate anticonvulsant drug. Many patients currently treated with multiple anticonvulsants can be successfully converted to monotherapy with a carefully monitored program in which troublesome and redundant drugs are gradually withdrawn from the therapeutic regimen.     

Anticonvulsant Drugs and Cognitive Function: A Review of the Literature

Summary: Alterations of cognitive function are separate from disturbances of behavior seen in association with epilepsy. The nature of the cognitive disability may to a certain extent depend on the seizure type. Partial seizures, mainly derived from a temporal lobe focus, impair memory tasks, while generalized seizures seem to have more effect on attentional abilities. A number of studies, reviewed in this paper, suggest that anticonvulsant drugs further impair cognitive function. Maximal impairments are seen in patients receiving polytherapy: rationalization of polytherapy improves cognitive abilities. Studies in children and adults have allowed differentiation of the effects of various commonly used antiepileptic agents. Maximal cognitive deficits are seen with. phenytoin, while phenobarbital and sodium valproate induce moderate disturbances, and carbamazepine seems relatively free from such toxicity. Further research is needed on the interrelationship between types of seizure disorders, types of anticonvulsant medications, and cognitive function.     

Dextromethorphan: Cellular Effects Reducing Neuronal Hyperactivity

Summary: Dextromethorphan is a dextrorotary morphinan without affinity for opioid receptors, commonly used as an antitussive medication. During the past 5 years, interest in the compound and its demethylated derivative, dextrorphan, has been revived because additional neuroprotective and an-tiepileptic properties were found in in vitro studies, animal experiments, and a few clinical cases. Both morphinans are able to inhibit N -methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor channels and voltage-operated calcium and sodium channels with different potencies. The inhibition of the NMDA receptor is believed to be the predominant mechanism of action responsible for the anticonvulsant and neuroprotective properties of the compounds.     

Effects of NMD A- and AMPA-Receptor Antagonists on Different Forms of Epileptiform Activity in Rat Temporal Cortex Slices

Summary: Lowering extracellular magnesium induces different patterns of epileptiform activity in rat hippocampus and entorhinal cortex. Short recurrent epileptiform discharges in the hippocampus are stable over time, whereas seizurelike events (SLEs) in the entorhinal cortex, the subiculum, and the neighboring neocortex develop into late recurrent discharges which are not blocked by clinically employed antiepileptic drugs. We tested the sensitivity of the different epileptiform discharge patterns to. /V-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)- and non-NMDA-receptor antagonists. As NMDA-receptor antagonist we used dextrorphan, ket-amine, and 2-aminophosphonovalerate (2APV); as α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid (AMPA)-receptor antagonist we employed the quinoxaline derivative glutamate 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX). The findings show that the different patterns of epileptiform activity, including the late recurrent discharges, are sensitive to all NMDA-receptor antagonists. However, when dextrorphan was employed to suppress seizure-like events, later recurrent discharges did not develop during the remaining time course of the experiment. CNQX reversibly suppressed recurrent discharges in the hippocampus and SLEs in the entorhinal cortex. However, late recurrent discharges become insensitive to CNQX, even at a high concentration of 60 μM m. This finding suggests a prominent role for NMDA receptors in the generation of late recurrent discharges.     

Pediatric Epilepsy Surgery

Summary: The use of implantable arrays of epidural electrodes has made it possible to carry out extraoperative electrocorticography (ECoG) and functional localization in the awake child. This has permitted cortical excisions that are determined by criteria similar to those obtained during surgical procedures performed under local anesthesia in adults. In addition, the method also permits simultaneous ECoG and video monitoring during the child's symptomatic seizures, providing additional important localizing information that is impractical to obtain in operations under local anesthesia. We report our experience with 75 children, ages 5 months to 15 years, whom we have managed with epidural electrode arrays. The method of extraoperative ECoG is described and illustrative cases are presented to demonstrate its feasibility and utility in children. In addition, we call attention to gliomas as a common cause of chronic focal seizures in children. Of 49 children undergoing resection and followed for from 1 to 14 years (mean of 5.8 years), 32 (65%) are either seizure free or have had a significant reduction in seizure frequency that has unambiguously improved their quality of life. The results are analyzed further by relating the surgical outcome to each of the pathologic entities that caused the seizures. This analysis reveals the variety of neurological conditions that commonly cause intractable focal seizure disorder in children and distinguishes those pathologic entities in which the seizure disorder is apt to respond to surgical intervention from those that will not.