A cost-effectiveness analysis of hormone replacement therapy in the menopause.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the cost-effectiveness of hormone replacement therapy in the menopause with particular reference to osteoporotic fracture and myocardial infarction. DESIGN: The multiple-decrement form of the life table was the mathematical model used to follow women of age 50 through their lifetime under the "no hormone replacement" and "hormone replacement" assumptions. Standard demographic and health economic techniques were used to calculate the corresponding lifetime differences in direct health care costs (net costs in dollars) and health effects ("net effectiveness" in terms of life expectancy and quality, in "quality-adjusted life-years"). This was then expressed as a cost-effectiveness ratio or the cost ($) per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) for each of the chosen hormone replacement regimens. SETTING AND PATIENTS: All women of age 50 in New South Wales, Australia (n = 27,021). RESULTS: The analysis showed that the lifetime net increments in direct medical care costs were largely contributed by hormone drug and consultation costs. Hormone replacement was associated with increased quality-adjusted life expectancy, a large percentage of which was attributed to a relief of menopausal symptoms. Cost-effectiveness ratios ranged from under 10,000 to over a million dollars per QALY. Factors associated with improved cost-effectiveness were prolonged treatment duration, the presence of menopausal symptoms, minimum progestogen side effects (in the case of oestrogen with progestogen regimens), oestrogen use after hysterectomy and the inclusion of cardiac benefits in addition to fracture prevention. CONCLUSIONS: Hormone replacement therapy for symptomatic women is cost-effective when factors that enhance its efficiency are considered. Short-term treatment of asymptomatic women for prevention of osteoporotic fractures and myocardial infarction is an inefficient use of health resources. Cost-effectiveness of hormone replacement in asymptomatic women is dependent on the magnitude of cardiac benefits associated with hormone use and the treatment duration.     

Costs of medical care for acute myocardial infarction attributable to tobacco consumption

BACKGROUND: Tobacco consumption is the principal modifiable risk factor causally associated with acute myocardial infarction (AMI). AMI has been an increasing and important cause of death in Mexico since 1980. METHODS: To estimate the direct health care costs of AMI, we carried out a cost of illness (COI) analysis, using data derived from an expert panel consensus and from medical chart review. We used the smoking attributable fraction (SAF) estimates to derive costs of tobacco consumption. We also estimated the benefits of a "Smoke-free Workplace" tobacco control policy in terms of avoidable deaths and health care costs savings. RESULTS: We estimated an annual average costs of 6,420 US dollars and 9,216 US dollars for non-ST segment elevation AMI (NSTEMI) and ST segment elevation AMI (STEMI), respectively. The total annual health care costs estimated for incident AMI for the IMSS state-level division of Morelos reached 2.9 million US dollars, of which 1.6 million US dollars was directly attributed to tobacco consumption. CONCLUSIONS: Our results confirm the high costs associated with smoking and show the potential benefits resulting from a tobacco control policy. Our estimates are only applicable to social security in the state-level division of Morelos and more likely represent a lower boundary of the total costs of cardiovascular diseases attributed to tobacco, because we based the costs estimation on incident cases, and we did not take into consideration the costs derived from prevalent cases, indirect costs or other intangibles.     

Employer drug benefit plans and spending on prescription drugs

CONTEXT: With drug spending rising rapidly for working-aged adults, many employers and health insurance providers have changed benefits packages to encourage use of fewer or less expensive drugs. It is unknown how these initiatives affect drug costs. OBJECTIVE: To examine how innovations in benefits packages, such as those that include multitier formularies and mandatory generic substitution, affect total cost to insurance providers for generic and brand drugs and out-of-pocket payments to beneficiaries. DESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS: Retrospective study from 1997 to 1999 linking claims data of 420,786 primary beneficiaries aged 18 through 64 years who worked at large firms (n = 25) with health insurance benefits that included outpatient drugs. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Overall drug costs; generic, single-source brand, and multisource brand costs; and drug expenditures by health insurance providers and out-of-pocket costs for beneficiaries. RESULTS: For a 1-tier plan with a 5 US dollars co-payment for all drugs, the average annual spending was 725 US dollars per member. Doubling co-payments to 10 US dollars for all drugs reduced the annual average drug cost from 725 US dollars to 563 US dollars per member (22.3%, P<.001). Doubling co-payments in a 2-tier plan from 5 US dollars for generics and $10 for brand drugs to 10 US dollars for generics and 20 US dollars for brand drugs reduced costs from 678 US dollars to 455 US dollars (32.9%, P<.001). Adding an additional co-payment of 30 US dollars for nonpreferred brand drugs to a 2-tier plan (10 US dollars generics; 20 US dollars brand) lowered overall drug spending by 4% (P<.001). Requiring mandatory generic substitution in a 2-tier plan reduced drug spending by 8% (P<.001). Doubling co-payments in a 2-tier plan increased the fraction beneficiaries' paid out-of-pocket from 17.6% to 25.6%. CONCLUSIONS: Adding an additional level of co-payment, increasing existing co-payments or coinsurance rates, and requiring mandatory generic substitution all reduced plan payments and overall drug spending among working-age enrollees with employer-provided drug coverage. The reduction in drug spending largely benefited health insurance plans because the percentage of drug expenses beneficiaries paid out-of-pocket rose significantly.     

Are Pregnancy Rates Compromised Following Embryo Freezing to Prevent OHSS?

Objective

To compare pregnancy rates with fresh and frozen embryo transfer in patients admitted to Royal Jubilee Maternity Service (RJMS), Belfast between January 1st 2004 and December 31st 2005 with ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS).

Method

A retrospective analysis of all ART cycles (2,283) carried out in RJMS between January 1st 2004 and December 31st 2005 and of all patients admitted to RJMS within 3 weeks of assisted reproduction therapy (ART).

Results

The incidence of OHSS requiring admission was 2.01%, which represented 80.70% of post-ART emergency admissions. The eventual pregnancy rate was 52.27% in all women admitted with OHSS. The pregnancy outcome in OHSS patients who received fresh embryo transfer was 56.52% and with frozen embryo transfer 50%. The main indications for fertility treatment in OHSS cases were male factor (31%) and polycystic ovarian syndrome (14%). Two distinct incidence peaks of OHSS were identified – early and late. 77.77% of women who suffered from late onset OHSS had a concurrent positive pregnancy test.

Conclusion

The pregnancy rate in OHSS cases, both with fresh and subsequently with frozen embryo transfer, was exceptionally high. There was no statistically significant difference between fresh and frozen embryo transfer pregnancy rates. An elective embryo freezing policy to moderate the severity and duration of OHSS does not compromise outcome for women at risk of OHSS.     

Live birth following day surgery reversal of female sterilisation in women older than 40 years: a realistic option in Australia?

OBJECTIVE: To determine the live birth rate following surgical reversal of sterilisation in women aged 40 years and older. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study of pregnancy outcome following day surgery microsurgical reversal of sterilisation performed by two reproductive microsurgeons in the private sector. SETTING AND PATIENTS: 47 patients (aged 40 years or older) who had reversal of sterilisation performed between 1997 and 2005 in Adelaide, South Australia (n=35), or the Infertility Centre of St Louis, Missouri, USA (n=12). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Independently audited live birth surviving the neonatal period. RESULTS: Of the 47 patients on whom follow-up was obtainable from the two centres, 19 (40%) had a live birth, 7 had had only a first trimester miscarriage at the time of follow-up, and 21 (44%) had failed to conceive. Age at conception ranged between 40 and 47 years. Two women had two live births following surgery. The total direct costs (Australian dollars, adjusted to 2005) in Australia were $4850 per treatment, and $11,317 per live birth. The corresponding direct cost of a single cycle of in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) in Australia has been estimated at $6940, with a cost per live birth of $97 884 for women aged 40-42 years and $182,794 for older women. CONCLUSION: Previously sterilised women wanting further pregnancy should be offered tubal surgery as an alternative to IVF, as it offers them the opportunity to have an entirely natural pregnancy. In settings where IVF is financially supported by government agencies or insurance, tubal reversal is a highly cost-effective strategy for the previously fertile woman.     

鲜胚移植与冻胚移植单胎妊娠孕妇妊娠结局和妊娠并发症比较

目的:对鲜胚移植与冻胚移植后单胎妊娠孕妇的妊娠结局及妊娠并发症进行比较,探讨不同胚胎移植方式的安全性和有效性。方法:回顾性队列研究分析2015年10月至2021年5月在中山大学附属第三医院生殖医学中心首次接受体外受精-胚胎移植且单胎妊娠的3161名孕妇的资料,其中鲜胚移植1009名（鲜胚移植组）、冻胚移植2152名（冻胚移植组）。比较两组的基线特征,并采用logistic回归分析两种移植方案对妊娠结局及妊娠并发症的影响。结果:与鲜胚移植组比较,冻胚移植组分娩孕周增加（P<0.01）,新生儿出生体重增加（P<0.01）,剖宫产率（65.1%与50.7%,AOR=1.791,95%CI:1.421～2.256,P<0.01）、大于胎龄儿（12.7%与9.4%,AOR=1.487,95%CI:1.072～2.064,P<0.05）和巨大儿（5.4%与3.2%,AOR=2.126,95%CI:1.262～3.582,P<0.01）的风险也有所增加。在妊娠并发症方面,冻胚移植组早期流产率（18.5%与16.2%,AOR=1.377,95%CI:1.099～1.725...     

影响再次IVF/ICSI-ET助孕结局的相关因素分析

目的分析影响再次体外受精-胚胎移植(IVF-ET)鲜胚周期助孕结局的因素,以进一步改善其结局。方法回顾性分析45例(90个周期)首次IVF/ICSI-ET助孕失败并接受再次IVF-ET鲜胚移植周期的情况,对可能影响妊娠结局的相关因素进行单因素分析和Logistic多因素回归分析。结果再次IVF/ICSI-ET获得临床妊娠23例、未孕22例,单因素分析结果显示妊娠组妊娠周期移植后黄体支持加用补佳乐剂量(4.73±2.49)mg/d与(3.5±2.63)mg/d、联用HCG剂量(1 318.18±945.48)IU/次与(636.36±953.46)IU/次显著高于首次未孕周期,差异均有统计学意义(t=2.113,P=0.047;t=2.83,P=0.01)。再次IVF/ICSI-ET获得临床妊娠组自身前后周期Logistic回归分析显示,移植后联用HCG(OR=1.001)、是否进行内膜修整(OR=0.143)与再次IVF/ICSI-ET临床妊娠结局相关(P<0.05)。再次周期未孕组与妊娠组各单因素比较,差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论内膜修整、适当的黄体支持是影响再次IVF/ICSI-ET助孕是否妊娠的重要因素,重视这些环节是提高和改善再次IVF助孕结局的重要方面。     

卵子冷冻技术的临床应用

目的 探讨卵母细胞冷冻技术在临床应用.方法 将258例接受体外受精-胚胎移植(IVF-ET)和单精子卵浆内注射(ICSI)治疗,取卵数≥20枚的258个周期,分为部分卵母细胞冷冻组(简称冻卵组)84个周期和胚胎冷冻组(简称冻胚组)174个周期,比较两组新鲜周期受精率和临床妊娠率.总结了23个卵母细胞冷冻复苏周期及19个移植周期(其中4个周期为捐赠周期)的复苏率,受精率,卵裂率,胚胎种植率,临床妊娠率,比较冻胚组冻胚复苏移植的临床结局.结果 冻卵组和冻胚组新鲜周期的受精率和临床妊娠率差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);19个卵母细胞冷冻复苏的移植周期与56个冷冻胚胎复苏的移植周期的胚胎种植率和临床妊娠率差异亦无统计学意义(P>0.05);卵母细胞冷冻复苏的移植周期妊娠率为47.4%(9/19),其中冻卵捐赠4个移植周期,2例临床妊娠(1例已分娩).结论 对于接受IVF/ICSI治疗的不孕妇女,由卵巢刺激产生的较多卵母细胞,无论是否选择冷冻部分卵母细胞,对其新鲜周期的受精率和妊娠率没有影响;冻卵移植周期与冻胚移植周期的妊娠率差异也无统计学意义;但是卵母细胞冷冻在生育力保存和分享捐赠方面较冻胚具有显著的优势.     

A Bahraini Registry of Assisted Reproductive Technology for Period of 2000-2006: Hoping to Stave off Reporting Stalemate

Objective To report the first Bahrain national registry for ART treatments initiated from January 1, 2000 to December 31, 2005. Methods The ＂World Report on ART＂ forms, prepared by the International Committee for Monitoring Assisted Reproductive Technology （ICMART）, were filled from database records of all procedures and their respective outcome carried out at Banoon ART Centre, the Military Hospital, Bahrain during the period of 2000-2006. Results A total of 1490 completed cycles were performed. ICSI constituted 42.68% （636）, IVF constituted 35.50% （529）, while frozen-thawed embryo replacement cycles represented only 21.18% （325） of all ART cycles. The clinical pregnancy rates per transfer for IVF and ICSI cycles were 26.65% and 21.70%, respectively. The distribution of singleton, twin and triplet deliveries for IVF,, ICSI and FET combined were 80. 0%, 16.3% and 3.7%, respectively. The average delivery rate per clinical pregnancy for fresh and frozen cycles was 57.3%. As a result of ART services, 266 neonates were born. Complications of ART were solely due to ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome （OHSS） which constituted 2.26% of all aspirated cycles. Conclusion Multiple pregnancy rate was high due to transferring 〉3 embryos. Pregnancy loss and OHSS were relatively high thus preventative measures were recommended. This report paves the way for the other IVF centers in Bahrain to provide their own data for the national ART registry.     

End-stage renal disease in the Northern Territory: current and future treatment costs

OBJECTIVE: To compare hospital costs of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal patients having haemodialysis treatment and forecast the future treatment cost. METHODS: The costs of patients with HD in the "Top End" of Australia's Northern Territory were estimated for the financial years 1996/97 and 1997/98 using a hospital costing model. We used an Autoregression Integrated Moving Average model to predict future demand. RESULTS: 165 patients (101 Aboriginal and 64 non-Aboriginal) were treated at a total cost of $12.4 million in this two-year period. These 165 patients represented 0.7% of inpatients, 8.8% of total inpatient costs and 31.6% of total inpatient episodes of care in the Top End region. $9.5 million (77%) was spent on routine haemodialysis treatment and $2.9m (23%) on other hospitalisations. The average cost per routine haemodialysis treatment over the two-year period was $527, or $78 600 per patient treatment year. Hospitalisations for comorbidities occurred in 86% of Aboriginal and 39% of non-Aboriginal patients. Average cost per patient, number of admissions and length of hospital stays were all significantly greater for Aboriginals. We predict an average increase in the number of treatments of 12% each year over the next five years and a five-year cost of $49.8m. CONCLUSIONS: A multipronged strategy designed to reduce the prevalence and costs of renal failure is required.     

Cost-effectiveness of rehabilitation after an acute coronary event: a randomised controlled trial

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the incremental effects on cost and quality of life of cardiac rehabilitation after an acute coronary syndrome. DESIGN: Open randomised controlled trial with 1 year's follow-up. Analysis was on an intention-to-treat basis. SETTING: Two tertiary hospitals in Sydney. INTERVENTION: 18 sessions of comprehensive exercise-based outpatient cardiac rehabilitation or conventional care as provided by the treating doctor. PARTICIPANTS: 113 patients aged 41-75 years who were self-caring and literate in English. Patients with uncompensated heart failure, uncontrolled arrhythmias, severe and symptomatic aortic stenosis or physical impairment were excluded. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Costs (hospitalisations, medication use, outpatient visits, investigations, and personal expenses); and measures of quality of life. Incremental cost per quality-adjusted life year (QALY) saved at 1 year (this estimate combines within-study utility effects with reported 1-year risk of survival and treatment effects of rehabilitation on mortality). Sensitivity analyses around a base case estimate included alternative assumptions of no treatment effect on survival, 3 years of treatment effect on survival and variations in utility. RESULTS: The estimated incremental cost per QALY saved for rehabilitation relative to standard care was 42,535 US dollars when modelling included the reported treatment effect on survival. This increased to 70,580 US dollars per QALY saved if treatment effect on survival was not included. The results were sensitive to variations in utility and ranged from 19,685 US dollars per QALY saved to rehabilitation not being cost-effective. CONCLUSIONS: The effects on quality of life tend to reinforce treatment advantages on survival for patients having postdischarge rehabilitation after an acute coronary syndrome. The estimated base case incremental cost per QALY saved is consistent with those historically accepted by decision making authorities such as the Pharmaceutical Benefits Advisory Committee.     

Live-birth rates and multiple-birth risk using in vitro fertilization

CONTEXT: To maximize birth rates, physicians who perform in vitro fertilization (IVF) often transfer multiple embryos, but this increases the multiple-birth risk. Live-birth and multiple-birth rates may vary by patient age and embryo quality. One marker for embryo quality is cryopreservation of extra embryos (if embryos are set aside for cryopreservation, higher quality embryos may have been available for transfer). OBJECTIVE: To examine associations between the number of embryos transferred during IVF and live-birth and multiple-birth rates stratified by maternal age and whether extra embryos were available (ie, extra embryos cryopreserved). DESIGN AND SETTING: Retrospective cohort of 300 US clinics reporting IVF transfer procedures to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 1996. SUBJECTS: A total of 35554 IVF transfer procedures. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Live-birth and multiple-birth rates (percentage of live births that were multiple). RESULTS: A total number of 9873 live births were reported (multiple births from 1 pregnancy were counted as 1 live birth). The number of embryos needed to achieve maximum live- birth rates varied by age and whether extra embryos were cryopreserved. Among women 20 to 29 years and 30 to 34 years of age, maximum live-birth rates (43 % and 36%, respectively) were achieved when 2 embryos were transferred and extra embryos were cryopreserved. Among women 35 years of age and older, live-birth rates were lower overall and regardless of whether embryos were cryopreserved, live-birth rates increased if more than 2 embryos were transferred. Multiple-birth rates varied by age and the number of embryos transferred, but not by whether embryos were cryopreserved. With 2 embryos transferred, multiple-birth rates were 22.7%, 19.7%, 11.6%, and 10.8% for women aged 20 to 29, 30 to 34, 35 to 39, and 40 to 44 years, respectively. Multiple-birth rates increased as high as 45.7% for women aged 20 to 29 years and 39.8% for women aged 30 to 34 years if 3 embryos were transferred. Among women aged 35 to 39 years, the multiple-birth rate was 29.4% if 3 embryos were transferred. Among women 40 to 44 years of age, the multiple-birth rate was less than 25% even if 5 embryos were transferred. CONCLUSIONS: Based on these data, the risk of multiple births from IVF varies by maternal age and number of embryos transferred. Embryo quality was not related to multiple birth risk but was associated with increased live-birth rates when fewer embryos were transferred.     

Embryo donation at an Australian university in-vitro fertilisation clinic: issues and outcomes

OBJECTIVES: To review the choices of couples relinquishing frozen embryos and the outcomes of embryo donation at a major in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) clinic. DESIGN AND SETTING: Retrospective audit of 11.5 years of data (1991-2002) from the Monash University IVF clinic, Melbourne. PARTICIPANTS: Couples who make decisions regarding the fate of their frozen embryos, and recipient couples taking part in embryo adoption. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Couples' choices with regard to the fate of their frozen embryos, and the outcome of donated embryo treatment cycles. RESULTS: Of 1246 couples relinquishing frozen embryos, 1116 (89.5%) opted to discard rather than donate their embryos. Sixty-six per cent of donated embryos survived thawing. From donated-embryo transfer to 50 women in 92 cycles, a 17.4% pregnancy rate per transfer cycle was achieved, and 10 women delivered 11 healthy babies at term. At the time of our audit there were 98 couples on the waiting list to adopt embryos. CONCLUSIONS: It is worth considering how couples can be encouraged to donate rather than discard their surplus frozen embryos. An educational program on relevant legal, social and clinical issues may facilitate this.     

新鲜周期全胚冷冻策略不影响体外受精-胚胎移植妊娠及产科结局:≤35岁患者的疗效分析

目的 比较新鲜周期行全胚冻存年轻患者和新鲜胚胎移植的临床妊娠结局及新生儿的产科结局,评价该策略的安全性及临床应用价值.方法 回顾性分析2011年1月~2015年12月在本中心进行体外受精-胚胎移植助孕治疗的卵巢功能正常的年龄≤35岁患者共2091个周期.促排卵治疗后全部胚胎冷冻,其后行第一周期冷冻复苏移植术的年轻患者796例为研究组,同期促排卵治疗后立即行新鲜周期移植的年轻患者1295例为对照组.分析比较两组间临床妊娠结局及分娩结局.结果 两组患者平均不孕年限无统计学差异(P>0.05),平均年龄全胚冷冻组低于新鲜周期移植组(29.5岁vs 30.2岁)有统计学差异(P<0.05).两组患者促排卵天数和移植时子宫内膜厚度无统计学差异(P>0.05),全胚冷冻组促排卵总促性腺激素剂量较新鲜移植组低(P<0.05),取卵前雌激素水平全胚组为12973 pmol/L,明显高于新鲜移植组8673 pmol/L,平均获卵数全胚组是新鲜组的1.5倍,差异均有显著性(P<0.05).两组患者临床妊娠率及活产率均无统计学差异(P>0.05),全胚冷冻组无卵巢过度刺激综合征发生,而新鲜移植组有20例发生中、重度卵巢过度刺激,差异有显著性(P=0.000).两组患者的分娩孕周及新生儿平均体质量均无统计学差异(P>0.05).结论 新鲜周期治疗中出现中、重度卵巢过度刺激综合征倾向取消新鲜周期移植而进行全胚冻存,择期行解冻移植,可获得满意的临床妊娠结局及产科结局,是预防晚发性卵巢过度刺激综合征的一种理想方法.     

Economic costs of urinary incontinence in community-dwelling Australian women

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the economic cost of urinary incontinence in community-dwelling Australian women aged 18 years and over for the year 1998. DESIGN: Extrapolation of data from studies of women with incontinence to the Australian population of women aged 18 years and over in 1998. Main outcome measures: Estimated prevalence of urinary incontinence in 1998, and estimated cost in Australian dollars of resource use and personal costs related to management of incontinence. RESULTS: An estimated 1835628 community-dwelling women over the age of 18 years had urinary incontinence in 1998. The total annual cost of this urinary incontinence is estimated at $710.44 million, or $387 per incontinent woman, comprising $338.47 million in treatment costs and $371.97 million in personal costs. An estimated 60% of women with incontinence in 1998 were aged 40 years or over. Assuming the prevalence of incontinence remains constant and, allowing for inflation, we project that the total annual cost in 20 years' time will be $1267.85 million, 93% ($1.18 billion) of which will constitute costs associated with women aged over 40 years. CONCLUSIONS: Urinary incontinence imposes a considerable drain on Australian healthcare resources. More research is needed to understand the magnitude of the problem and potential gains from continence promotion.     

Induction of labour versus expectant management for prelabour rupture of the membranes at term: an economic evaluation

BACKGROUND: As the interval between rupture of the fetal membranes at term and delivery increases, so may the risk of fetal and maternal infection. Recently the TERMPROM (Term Prelabor Rupture of the Membranes) Study Group reported the results of a randomized controlled trial comparing 4 management strategies: induction with oxytocin (IwO), induction with prostaglandin (IwP), and expectant management and induction with either oxytocin (EM-O) or prostaglandin (EM-P) if complications developed. The study found no statistically significant differences in neonatal infection and cesarean section rates between any of the 4 groups. OBJECTIVE: To conduct an economic evaluation comparing the cost of (a) IwO and EM-O, (b) IwP and EM-P and (c) IwO and IwP. DESIGN: An economic analysis, conducted alongside the clinical trial, using a third-party payer perspective. Analysis included all treatment costs incurred for both the mother and the baby. Information on health care utilization and outcomes was collected for all study participants. Three countries (Canada, the United Kingdom and Australia), corresponding to the largest study recruitment, were chosen for calculation of unit costs. For each country, the base, low and high estimates of unit cost for each service item were generated. Intention-to-treat analysis. Extensive statistical and sensitivity analyses were performed. RESULTS: The median cost of IwO per patient was significantly lower statistically than that of EM-O and IwP. This result held in all 3 countries compared -$114 and -$46 in Canada, -113 Pounds and -63 Pounds in the UK, and -A$30 and -A$49 in Australia) and after an extensive sensitivity analysis. There was no statistically significant difference in median cost per patient between IwP and EM-P. CONCLUSION: Although the clinical results of the TERMPROM study did not find IwO to be preferable to the other treatment alternatives, the economic evaluation found it to be less costly. However, these cost differences, even though statistically significant, are not likely to be important in many countries. When this is the case, the authors recommend that women be offered a choice between management strategies.     

The cost of obesity in Canada

BACKGROUND: Almost one-third of adult Canadians are at increased risk of disability, disease and premature death because of being obese. In order to allocate limited health care resources rationally, it is necessary to elucidate the economic burden of obesity. OBJECTIVE: To estimate the direct costs related to the treatment of and research into obesity in Canada in 1997. METHODS: The prevalence of obesity (body mass index of 27 or greater) in Canada was determined using data from the National Population Health Survey, 1994-1995. Ten comorbidities of obesity were identified from the medical literature. A population attributable fraction (PAF) was calculated for each comorbidity with data from large cohort studies to determine the extent to which each comorbidity and its management costs were attributable to obesity. The direct cost of each comorbidity was determined using data from the Canadian Institute of Health Information (for direct expenditure categories) and from Health Canada (for the proportion of expenditure category attributable to the comorbidity). This prevalence-based approach identified the direct costs of hospital care, physician services, services of other health professionals, drugs, other health care and health research. For each comorbidity, the cost attributable to obesity was determined by multiplying the PAF by the total direct cost of the comorbidity. The overall impact of obesity was estimated as the sum of the PAF-weighted costs of treating the comorbidities. A sensitivity analysis was completed on both the estimated costs and the PAFs. RESULTS: The total direct cost of obesity in Canada in 1997 was estimated to be over $1.8 billion. This corresponded to 2.4% of the total health care expenditures for all diseases in Canada in 1997. The sensitivity analysis revealed that the total cost could be as high as $3.5 billion or as low as $829.4 million; this corresponded to 4.6% and 1.1% respectively of the total health care expenditures in 1997. When the contributions of the comorbidities to the total cost were considered, the 3 largest contributors were hypertension ($656.6 million), type 2 diabetes mellitus ($423.2 million) and coronary artery disease ($346.0 million). INTERPRETATION: A considerable proportion of health care dollars is devoted to the treatment and management of obesity-related comorbidities in Canada. Further research into the therapeutic benefits and cost-effectiveness of management strategies for obesity is required. It is anticipated that the prevention and treatment of obesity will have major positive effects on the overall cost of health care.     

Does HPV infection do harm to IVF outcomes and subsequent pregnancy outcomes?

研究背景：因不孕症行IVF助孕患者成功率及妊娠结局是否受HPV感染影响一直存在争议,本文通过数据观察希望能得到更近一步的结果。 方法：回顾性分析3880例新鲜周期IVF助孕病例,TCT异常并行新鲜周期胚胎移植患者分为2组,HPV阳性组（n=56）和HPV阴性组（n=56）。两组数据比较应用t检验和卡方检验方法。对于HPV对临床妊娠组与非临床妊娠组的影响应用单因素及多因素分析描述。 结果： 3880病例中157例合并TCT异常（4%）。149例患者行HPV HCII检测,其中112例患者（81.2%）接受新鲜周期胚胎移植术。HPV阴性和阳性组分别56例,比较两组患者年龄、BMI均相似,不孕因素分类亦相似。IVF过程中促性腺激素用量、获卵数、临床妊娠率和流产率以及新生儿出生体重等均无明显差异。多因素分析提示无论HPV阳性与否或是HPV HC II滴度高低均对IVF后临床妊娠率无显著影响。 结论： HPV阳性似乎不影响人工助孕后成功率。作者不推荐在IVF周期前“过度治疗”HPV感染,因为时间的延误使患者年龄增大,可能会进一步降低卵巢功能,而卵巢功能降低才是影响IVF术后成功率的主要原因。     

Costs associated with gunshot wounds in Canada in 1991.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the costs (in 1993 dollars) associated with gunshot wounds in Canada in 1991. DESIGN: Cost analysis using separate estimates of gunshot incidence rates and costs per incident for victims who died, those who survived and were admitted to hospital and those who survived and were treated and released from emergency departments. Estimates were based on costs for medical care, mental health care, public services (i.e., police investigation), productivity losses, funeral expenses, and individual and family pain, suffering and lost quality of life. SETTING: Canada. OUTCOME MEASURES: Costs per case, costs by type of incident (e.g., assault, suicide or unintentional shooting) and costs per capita. RESULTS: The total estimated cost associated with gunshot wounds was $6.6 billion. Of this, approximately $63 million was spent on medical and mental health care and $10 million on public services. Productivity losses exceeded $1.5 billion. The remaining cost represented the value attributed to pain, suffering and lost quality of life. Suicides and attempted suicides accounted for the bulk of the costs ($4.7 billion); homicides and assaults were the next most costly ($1.1 billion). The cost per survivor admitted to hospital was approximately $300,000; this amount included just over $29,000 for medical and mental health care. CONCLUSION: Costs associated with gunshot wounds were $235 per capita in Canada in 1991, as compared with $595 in the United States in 1992. The differences in these costs may be due to differences in gun availability in the two countries. This suggests that increased gun control may reduce Canada's costs, especially those related to suicide.     

A cost-effectiveness analysis of prophylaxis against deep-vein thrombosis in major orthopedic surgery

A number of methods of prophylaxis can reduce the likelihood of postoperative deep-vein thrombosis in patients undergoing major orthopedic surgery. Using techniques of decision analysis, we examine the cost-effectiveness of several of these--warfarin sodium, low-dose subcutaneous heparin sodium, graduated compression stockings, intermittent pneumatic compression, heparin plus dihydroergotamine mesylate, and heparin plus stockings--compared with clinical diagnosis and treatment only. Our results show that 153 deaths per 10 000 patients occur when no prophylaxis is used; with most prophylaxis, this number is at least halved, and the most effective methods may reduce the number of deaths by three fourths. In addition, all of the prophylaxis considered are cost saving: average costs of care (including prophylaxis costs) are reduced by +19.40 to +181.60 per patient. Prophylaxis against deep-vein thrombosis in major orthopedic surgery therefore saves both lives and health care dollars.