Reconstructed materia medica of the Medieval and Ottoman al-Sham

This article presents the results of a study of the medicinal uses of natural substances in medieval and Ottoman al-Sham (the Levant). It involved a meticulous survey of a wide range of historical sources spanning approximately 1100 years and including medical and pharmacological literature, travelogues, geographical and agricultural literature, dictionaries, archives, the Genizah and other medieval sources. Our main goal was to arrive at a reconstruction of the unwritten materia medica of the medieval and Ottoman Levant. Of the many and varied medicinal substances on which we were able to extract information, we were able to identify 286. These are presented according to the following classification: 234 species of plants (81.8%); 27 species of animals (9.5%); 15 kinds of minerals (5.2%) and 10 substances of other or mixed origin (3.5%). Analysis of the data showed that the region under study served as the geographic origin of the majority of the substances, only a minority of the materials was imported. The main reason for this is the geographic location of the Levant as a junction between three continents, as a cultural meeting point and as trade center. Finally, our data revealed that the al-Sham region was an independent source of production and marketing of medicinal substances during the medieval and Ottoman periods.     

Ethnopharmacological survey of traditional drugs sold in the Kingdom of Jordan

The results of a survey of present-day traditional medicinal materials conducted in 1998-1999 in the Kingdom of Jordan are reported. The study covered selected markets of medicinal substances of ethnic communities throughout the kingdom, and also included questioning of the sellers about the healing characteristics of the various materials. The survey yielded information on many and varied medicinal substances, of which 304 are identified according to the following classifications: 236 species of plants (77.6%); 30 species of animals (9.8%); 29 kinds of inorganic substances (9.6%); and 9 materials of other or mixed origin (3%). Analysis of the data showed that some substances were of local origin (41.8%), but the majority of the substances (45.4%) were imported from other countries. 12.8% of the substances were both local and imported. These data demonstrate that there is still a flourishing and well-developed trade in these materials--a trade that is the remnant of a rich and ancient medical culture, which is disappearing from the modern world.     

古代医籍胃癌医案用药规律的发掘研究

目的：挖掘整理古代医籍中治疗胃癌的医案,探析其用药规律,为临床治疗胃癌提供借鉴。方法：查阅1911年以前以“噎膈”“反胃”为主症的医案,基于中医传承辅助平台软件建立处方数据库,挖掘高频药物,分析高频药物的四气、五味、归经、功效等,对统计结果进行分析。结果：共收入23本医案的154张处方,涉及中药376味,药物使用总频数1 300次。高频药物前30味分别为制半夏、茯苓、白茯苓、半夏、代赭石、陈皮、当归身、枇杷叶、干姜、杏仁、瓜蒌皮、淡吴萸、橘红、淡干姜、白芍、吴茱萸、川黄连、淮山药、生姜、炙甘草、竹茹、枳壳、白蜜、泽泻、丁香、薤白头、白术、桃仁、麦冬等。高频药物按功效分类主要为理气药、温里药、平肝熄风药、利水渗湿、温化寒痰药;药性以温性药为主,其次为寒性药;五味以甘味为主,继之辛味;药物归经前5位分别是胃经、脾经、大肠经、肺经、心经等。结论：古代医籍中胃癌医案的用药有一定规律性,治疗以温阳开浊为主。     

中医古籍哮喘用药规律的数据挖掘研究

目的基于中医古籍数据挖掘探讨治疗哮喘的用药规律,为临床用药提供依据。方法通过对古今医案云平台及中医药数据智能分析平台中的古代医案进行检索,将符合要求的古典方剂纳入数据库。采取频数分析、关联分析、聚类分析及复杂网络分析的方法对古典方剂中药物的使用频次、性味归经、主要功效以及关键药物进行分析。结果共纳入古典方剂574首,使用药物共计410味,使用频次最高的前3味为杏仁、麻黄、半夏,药性以温、寒为主,药味以辛、甘、苦为主,归经以肺、脾、胃、肾为主,最佳常用药物组合为麻黄与杏仁,关键核心药物组合为麻黄、杏仁、桑白皮、紫苏子、桔梗、陈皮、茯苓、半夏。结论古代治疗哮喘的方剂以止咳平喘、燥湿化痰为主,其用药针对性强且具有规律性,为现代临床用药的传承及发展起到重要指导意义。     

Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Hakka in Guangdong, China

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: An ethnobotanical survey was conducted to collect information on the use of medicinal plants by the Hakka living in Guangdong. AIM OF THE STUDY: This investigation was to document valuable knowledge represented by Hakka herbal medicine. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Information was obtained from semi-structured interviews, personal conversations with practitioners, direct observations, and by reviewing studies of Hakka and Cantonese reported in the literature. RESULTS: Our data covered 94 species belonging to 77 genera in 40 families. We found that most species used for medical purposes were for hepatitis (14 species) and skin diseases (12 species). These disorders are prevalent and are primarily treated with medicinal plants. For treatment, the plants were mainly used as teas (Luica, Bugingca and Lopêdca), medicinal baths and soups. The Hakka and non-Hakka people living in Guangdong use different medicinal plants and, in some cases, use the same medicinal plants differently. CONCLUSIONS: The fast disappearance of traditional culture and natural resources due to urbanization and industrialization suggests that unrecorded information may be lost forever. Thus, there is an urgent need both to record this valuable Hakka medicinal knowledge and to encourage its transfer to the next generation.     

A role for physicians in ethnopharmacology and drug discovery

Ethnopharmacology investigations classically involved traditional healers, botanists, anthropologists, chemists and pharmacologists. The role of some groups of researchers but not of physician has been highlighted and well defined in ethnopharmacological investigations. Historical data shows that discovery of several important modern drugs of herbal origin owe to the medical knowledge and clinical expertise of physicians. Current trends indicate negligible role of physicians in ethnopharmacological studies. Rising cost of modern drug development is attributed to the lack of classical ethnopharmacological approach. Physicians can play multiple roles in the ethnopharmacological studies to facilitate drug discovery as well as to rescue authentic traditional knowledge of use of medicinal plants. These include: (1) Ethnopharmacological field work which involves interviewing healers, interpreting traditional terminologies into their modern counterparts, examining patients consuming herbal remedies and identifying the disease for which an herbal remedy is used. (2) Interpretation of signs and symptoms mentioned in ancient texts and suggesting proper use of old traditional remedies in the light of modern medicine. (3) Clinical studies on herbs and their interaction with modern medicines. (4) Advising pharmacologists to carryout laboratory studies on herbs observed during field studies. (5) Work in collaboration with local healers to strengthen traditional system of medicine in a community. In conclusion, physician's involvement in ethnopharmacological studies will lead to more reliable information on traditional use of medicinal plants both from field and ancient texts, more focused and cheaper natural product based drug discovery, as well as bridge the gap between traditional and modern medicine.     

基于数据挖掘《中医方剂大辞典》治疗乳痈用药规律探讨

目的 探讨《中医方剂大辞典》中治疗乳痈方剂的药物配伍相关规律,更好地继承古人用药经验,指导当代临床用药.方法 统计《中医方剂大辞典》中主治乳痈病的方剂及其药物,采用古今医案云平台(V1.6.3)对治疗乳痈的方剂从单味药物频次、性、味、归经及功效结合临床辨证处方角度进行数据挖掘,分析用药规律.结果 共筛选出符合条件的方剂...     

Ficus spp. (fig): ethnobotany and potential as anticancer and anti-inflammatory agents

This review explores medieval, ancient and modern sources for ethnopharmacological uses of Ficus (fig) species, specifically for employment against malignant disease and inflammation. The close connection between inflammatory/infectious and cancerous diseases is apparent both from the medieval/ancient merging of these concepts and the modern pharmacological recognition of the initiating and promoting importance of inflammation for cancer growth. Also considered are chemical groups and compounds underlying the anticancer and anti-inflammatory actions, the relationship of fig wasps and fig botany, extraction and storage of fig latex, and traditional methods of preparing fig medicaments including fig lye, fig wine and medicinal poultices.     

建立中药小复方精选系统操作技术平台的基本构想

本文针对当前中药一、二、三类新药研究存在的问题,就中药精选小复方的定义和特点、筛选的步骤和方法进行了较全面系统的阐述,认为:根据国情和中医药理论特点,中药新药开发必须走先定病证再选药组方的研究之路;应完善和规范中药组合的君、臣、佐、使法则,且据以选药组方;应系统挖掘古方剂学遗产,探索全面建立和全方位利用古代方剂数据库管理系统,向古方剂要新药。本文提出了一种确立小复方具体药物精选的基本原则和思路,以及不同制备工艺、不同剂量配比最优化的考察方法,以求实现中药新药开发的程序化、规范化、定量化和科学化。     

建立中药小复方精选系统操作技术平台的基本构想

本文针对当前中药一、二、三类新药研究存在的问题，就中药精选小复方的定义和特点，筛选的步骤和方法进行了较全面系统的阐述，认为：根据国情和中医药理论特点，中药新药开发必须走先定病证再选药组方的研究之路；应完善和规范中药组合的君、臣、佐、使法则，且据以选药组方；应系统挖掘古方剂学遗产，探索全面建立和全方位利用古代方剂数据库管理系统。向古方剂要新药。本文提出了一种确立小复方具体药物精选的基本原则和思路，以及不同制备工艺，不同剂量配比最优化的考察方法，以求实现中药新药开发的程序化，规范化，定量化和科学化。     

Ethnobotanical survey of Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The medicinal plants employed in the ethnomedicine of Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria are studied. AIM OF THE STUDY: The survey aims at identifying and documenting the plants used amongst the indigenes of Akwa Ibom State. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Using ethnobotanical survey list, information is gathered through personal interviews with traditional medical practitioners, community elders and patients. RESULTS: A total of 114 medicinal plant species representing 102 genera and 54 families employed in the traditional medical practice of the people of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria are recorded from 930 homes. Ailments such as skin diseases, malaria, gonorrhoea and haemorrhoids are mostly treated with the medicinal plants. Details pertaining to the preparation and administration of plant drugs are provided. CONCLUSIONS: The survey provides a veritable source of information for traditional medical practitioners and medicinal plant researchers. These medicinal plants may be incorporated into the healthcare delivery system of the country.     

A relic of medieval folklore: Corpus Christi Octave herbal wreaths in Poland and their relationship with the local pharmacopoeia

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Herbal wreaths are blessed all over Poland on the eighth day of the Corpus Christi Octave (usually in June). They used to contain many species of aromatic and medicinal plants, both collected from the wild and cultivated. The aim of this study was to document the present composition of wreaths using photographs (etic perspective) and questionnaires (emic perspective) and compare it with the local pharmacopoeia, the composition of Assumption Day bouquets (blessed in August) and historical data on the composition of the wreaths.

Materials and methods

The study was carried out in SE Poland (near Krosno). Photographs of 245 wreaths were taken and 133 questionnaires concerning the blessed plants and their medical use were obtained.

Results

On average a photographed wreath contained over five species of plants and an average informant listed six species. The frequency of species in photos and questionnaires was similar. Several medicinal plants which used to be the key elements of the wreaths (e.g. Sedum acre, Asarum europaeum, Matricaria recutita, Thymus pulegioides, Alchemilla spp.) are now less frequently seen, mainly due to vegetation transformations. Nowadays only about a quarter of species in the wreaths are medicinal plants, the remaining are mainly ornamental flowers. Only a part of the local pharmacopoeia is represented in the blessed wreaths and bouquets. The wreaths were often used in fumigation practices (whole wreaths or single species taken out) for a whole continuum of purposes: from purely ritual to medicinal. Nowadays they serve a mainly apotropaic function, but help to preserve traditional ethnomedicinal knowledge.

Conclusion

The blessing of herbal wreaths in Poland seems to be the last relic of a more widespread custom found in medieval times throughout northern and central Europe originally associated with summer solstice.     

畲族野生药用植物资源及应用的调查研究

为查清我国畲族常用野生药用植物资源的种类、分布和民间应用情况及畲族特有药用植物品种。对全国25个畲民主要居住的县（市）区进行实地调查,收集民间畲医药人员提供的处方、治疗案例、用法用量、常用畲药和药物标本,同时调查其分布情况、生长环境,记录植物特征,拍摄图片、GPS数据及航迹,采集新鲜腊叶或植物标本。结果收集到畲族民间用药1 600个品种、病名450个和处方1 016个;其中畲族常用药用植物520种,主要生长分布在我国东南部,海拔200~1 500 m;有国家一级保护野生植物（药用）5种、国家二级保护野生植物（药用）15种,畲族特有药用植物11种;分属于144科、312属、494种、2亚种、17变种、3变型和1栽培变种;畲族民间药物使用方法不同于中医和其他民族医药。通过调查,查清了我国畲族常用野生药用植物资源的种类、分布、民间应用情况和常用药物,查明了珍稀濒危畲族药用植物和畲族特有药用植物,为今后畲药资源开发利用决策提供了依据。     

夏枯草本草及其入药部位变化的考证

目的:通过对夏枯草历代本草著作考证,研究夏枯草名称、产地、主治功效、入药部位及采收加工方法,为临床用药及合理开发利用该植物资源提供本草学依据.方法:考证历代主流本草著作,并结合实地考察进行综合分析.结果:历史上夏枯草分布区主要集中于我国四川省境内、淮河流域及长江中下游地区;夏枯草主治功效古今基本一致;但古今药用部位及采收加工记载存在差异.结论:通过对本草文献考证与分析,夏枯草人药部位变化大致经历带穗全草[明朝后期(约16世纪或以前)至清末民初(约19世纪初)]、以果穗及带穗全草入药[民国中期(约19世纪30年代)至1963年)]、单用半枯或成熟果穗(1963年至今)3个阶段;夏枯草传统加工方法根据临床疗效不同分为晒干和阴干两种,而现代加工方法仅采用晒干.     

Ethnopharmacy of turkish‐speaking cypriots in greater London

For centuries, in the Eastern Mediterranean region, medicinal plant use has been widely accepted as a treatment method for both minor and major diseases. Although some knowledge exists on the use of such medicinal plants within the Greek Cypriot culture and considerable information is available on various regions in Turkey, no detailed ethnopharmaceutical or ethnobotanical studies exist on Turkish‐speaking Cypriots (TSC) both in Cyprus and within one of the largest TSC migrant communities in London, UK. Semi‐structured interviews with members of the TSC community in London were conducted by using a questionnaire consisting both of open and closed questions. Open questions were aimed at identifying herbs, spices, medicinal plants and their uses. Also, graded questions were used to define informants' opinions as a quantitative parameter, constructing a statistical basis. A wide range of therapeutic claims were recorded, including 13 chronic illnesses within 85 different plant species, of which 18 were cited more than 10 times. The most frequently mentioned species were Mentha spicata, Salvia fruticosa and Pimpinella anisum. The plants recorded are frequently based on knowledge derived from Turkish‐Cypriot traditions, but many examples of medicinal plants with a use based on UK or general western herbal medical traditions were also recorded. Informants highlighted the risk of knowledge loss in younger generations and thus this study serves as a repository of knowledge for use in the future. Due to a lack of knowledge about such usages in the healthcare professions, our study also highlights the need to develop information sources for use by healthcare practitioners in order to raise awareness about benefits and risks of such medical and health food products. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants at periodic markets of Honghe Prefecture in Yunnan Province, SW China

In China, traditional markets are considered as important places for trading of medicinal plants harvested by rural villagers, which also play a social role of exchanging traditional use of herbal medicine among different cultural and social groups at local level. Market survey is often engaged in ethnobotanical studies for documenting locally used herbal plants and associated traditional knowledge. Information collected from market survey is also useful for plant conservation in the habitat areas. However, information on the market traded medicinal plants is not well documented from traditional markets in Honghe Prefecture, Yunnan. The study aimed to look into medicinal plants that are used by local people for curing various ailments. Ethnobotanical market survey methods, interviews, Participatory Action Research (PAR) and field visits were planned to elicit information on the uses of various medicinal plants. It was found that 216 plant species are commonly used by local people for curing various diseases, of which 173 species (80.1%) are wild plants and 43 species (19.9%) are home garden plants. A total of 278 records of medical uses in 60 herbal recipes for the treatment of 16 types of common diseases were recorded. In most of the recipes recorded, digestion diseases (30.6%) were used. The rest are rheumatological diseases (13.0%), respiratory system diseases (10.4%), infectious diseases (7.9%) and surgery uses (7.9%). The knowledge about the number of medicinal plants available in that area and used by interviewees was positively correlated with the threats on medicinal plants in the wild habitats of the study area, indicating that the diversity of medicinal plants and the associated traditional knowledge trends to disappear in the area.