广州市环境卫生规划指标体系及现状评价

应用分级加权评价模型，在现状调研、向专家咨询和层次分析的基础上，建立了一个城市环境卫生规划评价指标体系，并对广州市环境卫生现状进行评价分析，提出了广州市环卫规划中应着重解决的问题。     

A participatory approach to sanitation: experience of Bangladeshi NGOs

This study assesses the role of participatory development programmes in improving sanitation in rural Bangladesh. Data for this study came from a health surveillance system of BRAC covering 70 villages in 10 regions of the country. In-depth interviews were conducted with one adult member of a total of 1556 randomly selected households that provided basic socioeconomic information on the households and their involvement with NGO-led development programmes in the community. The findings reveal that households involved with credit programmes were more likely to use safe latrines than others who were equally poor but not involved in such programmes. The study indicates that an unmet need to build or buy safe and hygienic latrines existed among those who did not own one. Such latent need could be raised further if health education at the grassroots level along with supervised credit supports were provided to them. Unlike conventional belief, the concept of community-managed jointly owned latrines did not seem a very attractive alternative. The study argues that social and behavioural aspects of the participatory development programmes can significantly improve environmental sanitation in a traditional community.     

Environmental health knowledge and practice survey among secondary schoolchildren in Zaria,Nigeria.

Knowledge of environmental health was assessed in a sample of 192 students at Ja''afaru Secondary School, Zaria, Nigeria, by means of a questionnaire. A follow-up practice survey was also administered to assess the environmental sanitation of the school and the homes of a subsample of the students. Observations were recorded on the sources of water, the methods of refuse and sewage disposal, and the hygienic condition of the toilets in both the school and the homes surveyed. The findings indicated that the students'' knowledge of environmental hygiene was high for all classes and that students whose fathers had primary, secondary, or post-secondary education scored slightly higher than those whose fathers were illiterate. Analysis of the observations on environmental sanitation showed that even though the school lacked indoor plumbing on the premises, the pupils were accustomed to pipe-borne and well water in their homes. The main method of refuse disposal for school and homes was open dumping, and the main method of sewage disposal for both school and homes was pit latrines, which were dirty and poorly maintained. Although the pupils had good knowledge of environmental hygiene, inadequate opportunities and lack of sanitation facilities at school and homes did not allow them to practice the health knowledge they had acquired. Recommendations were made to the school authority to direct more effort toward providing a safe and adequate water supply, good drainage systems, additional toilets, and renovating the existing toilets. The school should also emphasize the practice of good environmental hygiene to complement theoretical input.     

Environmental health and safety in the academic setting.

The academic institution can be viewed as a community within a community, with many environmental concerns similar to those of a municipality: private water supplies, housing, food sanitation, injury control, occupational health, radiation protection, waste control, etc. The complexity of a university environmental health and safety (EHS) program is closely related to the size of the college or university, and the type of program carried on by the institution (e.g., teaching hospital, agrigultural experiment stations, amount and variety of research programs). This paper seeks to convey information about environmental health and safety programs in colleges and universities which will be of help to environmental regulatory agencies as they interact with academic institutions. Understanding internal organizations and policy matters will make environmental regulatory agencies more effective as they interact with academic institutions. The extent of regulatory change now impacting on academic institutions is also discussed.     

Strengthening environmental and educational nutrition programmes in worksite cafeterias and supermarkets in The Netherlands

The purpose of this study was to assess conditions for the adoption and continued implementation of different healthy nutrition programmes in worksite cafeterias and supermarkets, i.e. an educational programme and two environmental programmes (a food labelling programme and a food supply programme). Twenty semi-structured interviews were conducted with representatives of worksite cafeterias and supermarkets. Concepts of theories of diffusion were used as a framework for the study. Questions were formulated about the attributes of the innovation, and organizational and personal characteristics that might influence programme adoption and implementation. Results indicated that educational and environmental programmes in both worksite cafeterias and supermarkets should meet specific requirements regarding programme design, methods and materials in order to be adopted and implemented. Besides, some important implementation strategies of the educational and environmental programmes were identified. It is concluded that it seems feasible to conduct educational and environmental intervention programmes in worksite cafeterias and supermarkets, but that certain conditions for adoption and continued implementation have to be met. Based on the implications of this study, the development of an educational programme, a labelling programme and a food supply programme was completed.     

Balancing responsibility for sanitation

In response to the failure of existing means of service provision, environmental health policy is increasingly adopting a framework of governance for providing sanitation. Governance refers to the patterns of interaction between civil society and government. It is viewed here in terms of four dimensions: political, institutional, technical and cultural. The interactions are often described as partnerships and imply a balancing of joint responsibility. A number of issues can be identified in the literature as requiring consideration when adopting a joint responsibility for environmental health issues. These include, the need to distinguish between community and individual rights; the extent to which there is a shared interest in a community rights issues; the institutional framework for upholding the rights of citizens and the need to guard against new inequalities. The research question was: what are the factors that may inhibit or promote the involvement of community-based organisations (CBOs) in the sanitation provision process? From October 1996 to March 1997, an exploration of these factors was conducted in Cape Town, South Africa. A multiple-case study, with an embedded design, of two CBOs was conducted. This paper focuses on the extent to which there was a shared responsibility between local government and CBOs towards sanitation provision in the context of a bill rights which provides people with a right to a healthy living environment. It was found that institutional and technical capacity, political will and cultural diversity will impact on the balance between rights and responsibility. The four dimensional framework of governance is thus a useful tool for exploring the dynamic and diverse nature of environmental health.     

Why gender matters in the solution towards safe sanitation? Reflections from rural India

While the topic of women and water, sanitation and hygiene is a widely accepted concern among academics and activists, it continues to be an issue in developing countries with serious consequences. Based on a qualitative research conducted in rural Uttar Pradesh, India, the paper affirms that sanitation issues for women and girls are compounded by inequitable gender norms that put them at greater risk of experiencing violence and multiple health vulnerabilities. Women, despite having a high demand for safe toilet facilities, continue to practise unsafe sanitation. The findings highlight the role of three structural constraints as the key factors influencing toilet construction and use: poverty, inadequate sanitation policy and its implementation and gender-based power dynamics at the household level. The paper concludes by emphasising the relevance of engendering sanitation programmes and policies by involving women and girls in the planning process to ensure that dignified and gender-sensitive sanitation solutions are developed. The paper also stresses the need to have measures for strengthening and effectively implementing a sanitation policy for the poor and for programmes to work with both men and women to address gender power relations which influence toilet adoption and use.     

Health concepts, issues, and experience in the Abakaliki area, Nigeria.

Environmental health problems are increasingly receiving global attention. The health of entire nations may not only be affected by adverse environmental conditions, but by nutritional deficiencies that lead to morbidity and mortality. The type and extent of adverse health effects in a population depend on the potential for exposure to some environmental factors and pathogens as well as other environmental variables like industrialization, sanitation conditions, and urbanization. National and international comparisons between health status indicators can reveal the extent of any differences that exist, including dynamic changes in prevailing environmental conditions which may be helpful in characterizing the role of specific risk factors. Improvements in collection of environmental data related to health can help to identify, control, and eliminate many of the factors that are associated with environmental risk in the Abakaliki area of eastern Nigeria.     

Environmental health education in Micronesia

Water supply and sanitation programmes in Micronesia require substantial capital investments. In the past, many of these projects have failed to achieve their maximum impact on preventing water-related diseases. Cases of cholera and the continuation of frequently occurring gastro-intestinal diseases undermine the expectations that new and planned water and sanitation systems will result in disease prevention. This report indicates that knowledge of water-related diseases and the understanding of the benefits of safe water supply and sanitation are limited as programmes in Micronesia that would educate the different sectors of the community have never been institutionalised. We have developed the first comprehensive system for teaching about water supply, sanitation and health in a Micronesian environment. The educational materials will be used as curricula in public education and as information resources for appropriate individuals in these remote and scattered communities of the Pacific.     

Old indicators for new problems: the relationship between sanitation and health]

OBJECTIVE: To review the literature published from 1995-2004 on the relationship between sanitation and health and to identify the main variables analyzed and the diseases or injuries used as markers of effect or environmental health. METHOD: A search of Medline, SciELO, and LILACS on "sanitation" and "health" and "indicator" and "water" produced 103 articles, 17 of which were considered relevant for the analysis. We identified the study design and the sanitation and health variables analyzed in each of the 17 studies. RESULTS: The most common study design was ecological and was employed in seven of the 17 studies. In most (10 studies), the health variable was diarrhea and sanitation variable was water quality. Fifteen studies reported a positive association between the health and sanitation variables. CONCLUSIONS: There are still many gaps in our understanding of sanitation and its role, especially in large urban centers that are dependent on water and sewerage systems and often lack alternative water sources. Ecological studies based on secondary data and specific surveys have been shown to be a good option for analyses correlating sanitation and health.     

城市环境卫生作业监理模式初探

分析了环境卫生管理工作存在问题,并试图从建立一套科学、合理、实用的环境卫生作业监理模式出发,开发一套数字信息化系统,以提升城市环境卫生质量。     

Economic aspects of rural sanitation in the United States of America

Although health conditions in the rural areas of the USA are comparatively good, they are inferior to those in the urban areas. An important reason for this inferiority is the fact that rural sanitation is less a social responsibility than an individual responsibility, which many rural families cannot finance. The rural culture imposes many handicaps on the rural family''s health and wealth. Such handicaps may be moderated by sanitation and related social and economic measures, if the measures selected are appropriate to the local needs and resources, which may vary greatly. Although sanitation needs are common to all rural areas, the refinement and complexity of sanitation facilities and services cannot be uniform. Allowing for variable circumstances, however, the basic elements of rural sanitation in the USA can be realized within a generation. The probable net gains in farm productivity would seem to warrant support for a rural sanitation programme on economic grounds alone, if an economic market may be assumed for the increase in agricultural production.     

Environmental risks in the developing world: exposure indicators for evaluating interventions, programmes, and policies

BACKGROUND: Monitoring and empirical evaluation are essential components of evidence based public health policies and programmes. Consequently, there is a growing interest in monitoring of, and indicators for, major environmental health risks, particularly in the developing world. Current large scale data collection efforts are generally disconnected from micro-scale studies in health sciences, which in turn have insufficiently investigated the behavioural and socioeconomic factors that influence exposure. STUDY DESIGN: A basic framework is proposed for development of indicators of exposure to environmental health risks that would facilitate the (a) assessment of the health effects of risk factors, (b) design and evaluation of interventions and programmes to deliver the interventions, and (c) appraisal and quantification of inequalities in health effects of risk factors, and benefits of intervention programmes and policies. Specific emphasis is put on the features of environmental risks that should guide the choice of indicators, in particular the interactions of technology, the environment, and human behaviour in determining exposure. The indicators are divided into four categories: (a) access and infrastructure, (b) technology, (c) agents and vectors, and (d) behaviour. The study used water and sanitation, indoor air pollution from solid fuels, urban ambient air pollution, and malaria as illustrative examples for this framework. CONCLUSIONS: Organised and systematic indicator selection and monitoring can provide an evidence base for design and implementation of more effective and equitable technological interventions, delivery programmes, and policies for environmental health risks in resource poor settings.     

Understanding screening: requirements for a successful programme

Screening has generally been successful in identifying those at risk from disease. This success has led to the belief that screening in the general population is always a good thing. However, there are pitfalls which must be avoided if screening programmes are to achieve what is intended for them.     

An approach to effective health care delivery in a developing nation: A case for Nigeria

Delivery of health care services in the developing countries is at present, yielding little or no results to the people being served due to programme structurelessness and lack of goal orientation. Those charged with programmes relating to health services have failed to identify the health problems in their communities. Even when these problems are identified, lack of planning, effective programme execution and evaluation has often brought failures. The result has been poor health for the people.If health services programmes are to be considered successful there must be guarantees that such services are at the disposal of the people wherever they are. In order to achieve complete geographical and population coverage of health services, a state should be organized into provinces, divisions, districts and sectors with the health services also organized according to levels of care (i.e. primary, secondary and tertiary levels). Thus, in any given province, we shall have a number of divisions, districts and sectors, each determined to serve a certain size of population. Also, the size of the population required for effective provision of different levels of care will increase with the complexity of the medical condition involved. Connecting these levels of care, must be referral system whereby complex cases at lower levels can be spent to the level immediately above.Since many health problems are preventable, particular attention must be paid to this area in the overall health services programme. Notably among measures to be taken are effective immunization programmes and environmental health services, both to be strongly sipported with health education.Immunization of the whole population must be the first task in the field of public health. In addition to coverage of all ages in mass immunization at the onset, a further campaign for routine childhood immunization should be essentially carried out.Another important area is environmental health. At present, a considerable number of the health problems in our society are the consequences of wide range of environmental factors. Most health hazards from the environment are those resulting from water supply, food sanitation, waste disposal, housing, inadequate rodent and insect control, pets and domestic animals, occupational source, air pollution and accidents.     

A case-control study of the effect of environmental sanitation on diarrhoea morbidity in Malawi.

A case-control design has been applied in the evaluation of improved environmental sanitation on diarrhoeal diseases in rural Malawi. The study demonstrates the feasibility of using such an approach to evaluate two levels of water supply and sanitation service quickly and at moderate cost. Sample sizes would need to be increased substantially to evaluate multiple levels of service or to investigate interactions between water supply and sanitation. The results indicate that children living in families who use good quality water supplies and latrines experience 20% less diarrhoea as reported to the health clinics during the warm, rainy season.     

2013年大连市农村环境卫生监测结果

目的了解农村环境卫生状况,为制定改善农村环境的政策措施提供依据和支持。方法通过查阅资料、访谈、现场观察、实验室检测等方法,了解大连市金州新区和庄河市农村环境卫生状况。结果 75%以上的户厕类型为非卫生户厕,户厕室内清洁;85%以上的监测村生活垃圾统一收集;生活污水随意排放的较多;70%以上农户卫生行为习惯良好;病媒生物滋生场所70%以上为柴草垛和水厕/旱厕;土壤质量100%达到国家二级标准。结论农村环境卫生状况较差,村民环境卫生意识淡薄,应加强对环境卫生知识宣传和农村环境卫生基础设施建设的投入。     

福清市农村环境卫生状况调查分析

目的 通过开展农村环境卫生调查,了解福清市农村环境卫生状况和村民卫生习惯,客观评价农村环境卫生水平,为政府制订涉农政策措施提供依据和支持.方法 采用入户调查方式对分层抽样的40个村、200户居民进行问卷以及现场调查.结果 40个调查村大部分都制定了卫生规划和卫生制度,同时能定期开展环境卫生宣传教育活动;污水排放基本上都通过管道和明（暗）沟排放,垃圾处理均实现了村里定点堆放,镇上统一收集.村民告别了喝生水的习惯,均喝上了安全卫生的饮用水.97％的农户均建有卫生厕所,室内和庭院卫生基本上能保持干净整洁.结论 福清市农村环境卫生状况良好,大部分村都有制定卫生规划和卫生制度,配备专兼职保洁员,污水排放有待于进一步规范,病媒生物控制力度有待于进一步加强,村民的卫生意识形态仍需加强.