Chinese parenting in Hong Kong: links among goals,beliefs and styles

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among parental goals, parental beliefs and parenting styles. Questionnaires were completed during interviews with 189 Hong Kong‐Chinese mothers of children aged six to eight years. Results indicated that these mothers embraced Chinese parental beliefs (guan) and Chinese parental goals of filial piety and harmonious social relationships. In contrast to other studies on Chinese parenting, this study examined Chinese mothers’ adoption of psychological control in addition to authoritarian and authoritative parenting. Participants’ main styles were found to be authoritative and psychologically controlling rather than authoritarian as reported in previous research. Parental goals were found to mediate the effect of parental beliefs on adoption of parenting styles. Mothers who embraced guan and filial piety reported either an authoritarian or a psychologically controlling parenting style, while those who embraced guan and harmonious social relationships adopted an authoritative parenting style.     

Pathways of influence: Chinese parents' expectations,parenting styles,and child social competence

This study examines relations among Chinese parents' expectations for children's development of social–emotional skills, parenting styles, and child social competence. A total of 154 parents with preschool-aged children from mainland China completed questionnaires measuring their timing of expectations for children's mastery of social–emotional skills, value placed on social–emotional skills, parenting styles, and child social competence. Parenting styles were found to mediate the effects of parental expectations on child social competence. Parents with earlier expectations reported higher levels of authoritative parenting, which, in turn, related to better parent-reported child social competence. Parents who placed more value on social–emotional skills were more likely to adopt an authoritative parenting style, and subsequently, they reported children having better social competence.     

Links between Chinese mothers' parental beliefs and responses to children's expression of negative emotions

This study investigated relations between parental beliefs and mothers' reported responses to their children's negative emotions. Altogether 189 Chinese mothers of children aged six to eight years were interviewed in group sessions using structured questionnaires. It was found that Chinese mothers endorsed Guan, the Chinese parental beliefs. They also believed that children should be exposed to emotional experiences in order to learn about emotion but did not believe that parents should take an inactive role in their children's emotion learning. Regression analyses revealed that Guan predicted the adoption of the coaching, emotion-supportive and emotion-dismissing approaches when handling children's emotion. Maternal belief in children's open exposure to emotional experiences predicted the adoption of the coaching and emotion-supportive approaches but not the emotion-dismissing approach. Maternal belief in inactive parental role in children's emotion learning predicted the adoption of the emotion-dismissing approach but not the coaching approach. Implications for parent education are discussed.     

Family and Child Characteristics, Child-Rearing Factors, and Cognitive Competence of Young Children

In this paper, the contribution of a number of family, child, and parental child-rearing characteristics to the explanation of differences in the cognitive competencies of young children are considered. A model is formulated with not only clear attention to the ethnic and linguistic characteristics of the family, but also such factors as the child-rearing behavior of the parents, parent-child interactions, and the child-rearing competence of the parents. The model is then evaluated with the aid of data from a recent large-scale Dutch study of six-year-old children ( n = 10,774). The results of the LISREL analyses show the parental level of education to play a central role in the explanation of differences in the cognitive competencies of the children. The ethnic origin of the family, the use of Dutch in the home, and the parental level of mastery of the Dutch language are also found to be of influence. Parental child-rearing factors, however, do not affect the children's cognitive competence.     

A Comparison of Knowledge about Asthma Between Asians and Non-Asians at Two Pediatric Clinics

Little is known about the relative knowledge of asthma in recent immigrant Asian populations in the United States (US). To comparatively assess asthma knowledge for Asian and non-Asian populations, 333 parents and children were surveyed at two geographically close urban clinics that had a large percentage of Asian patients, most of whom were Chinese. The Asian respondents scored lower compared to the non-Asian respondents on 4 of the 6 knowledge questions (p < 0.001). Subcategories of non-Asians (white, African-American, Hispanic) were more similar to each other than they were to Asians. In multivariate analysis we found that SES (measured as parental occupation) and being Asian were independent predictors of less asthma knowledge. Having family members with asthma did not improve knowledge scores. A single focus group of Cantonese-speaking parents of asthmatic children suggested that a combination of cultural factors and lack of knowledge contribute to lower knowledge scores in this Asian population. Asthma education programs need to be developed, tailored to recent Asian immigrants and tested for efficacy.     

Contemporary Chinese parents’ socialization priorities for preschoolers: a mixed methods study

This mixed methods study focused on the socialization goals for preschool-aged children among parents from three small-sized cities located in northeastern China. A total of 154 parents with preschool-aged children completed questionnaires measuring parental socialization goals for children's social-emotional competence and academic achievement. Quantitative results showed that parents generally placed more importance on children's social-emotional skills than academic skills. Ten mothers were selected from the sample and participated in a semi-structured qualitative interview to help understand reasons for parents’ prioritization of social-emotional well-being over academic performance. Four themes emerged, including parents’ concerns about children's psychological well-being under excessive academic pressure, their desires to ‘protect’ children's childhood, their awareness of children's individual differences in intelligence and talent in learning, and their belief that good grades did not guarantee future success in life. Our findings highlight the importance of using mixed methods to deepen understanding of contemporary Chinese parents’ child-rearing ideologies.     

Family and Child Characteristics,Child-Rearing Factors,and Cognitive Competence of Young Children

In this paper, the contribution of a number of family, child, and parental child-rearing characteristics to the explanation of differences in the cognitive competencies of young children are considered. A model is formulated with not only clear attention to the ethnic and linguistic characteristics of the family, but also such factors as the child-rearing behavior of the parents, parent-child interactions, and the child-rearing competence of the parents. The model is then evaluated with the aid of data from a recent large-scale Dutch study of six-year-old children ( n = 10,774). The results of the LISREL analyses show the parental level of education to play a central role in the explanation of differences in the cognitive competencies of the children. The ethnic origin of the family, the use of Dutch in the home, and the parental level of mastery of the Dutch language are also found to be of influence. Parental child-rearing factors, however, do not affect the children's cognitive competence.     

Some childhood antecedents of drug and alcohol abuse.

Unsatisfactory intrafamilial relationships and child-rearing practices have frequently been implicated as prime determinants of personalities that are susceptible to drug and alcohol abuse. Five thousand forty-four US Army soldiers were surveyed by anonymous questionnaires. The reported occurrence of a variety of activities, events and behaviors in childhood among drug and alcohol abusers were compared to non users. Childhood antecedents that were associated with non-use of illegal drugs and which showed as much as a 20% difference in reported occurrence between abusers and non-users of illegal drugs were: spanking, church attendance, first alcoholic drink after 15 years, and perceived "happy" parental marriage. These associations were found uithin white and non-white groups and in subjects with divorced or separated parents. There was no antecedent that showed as much as a 20% difference in reported occurrence between alcohol abusers and non-users.     

西双版纳傣族与汉族初中生父母养育方式比较研究

目的 探讨西双版纳傣族与汉族初中生父母养育方式。方法 采用岳东梅等翻译、修订的父母养育方式评价量表对143名初中生进行测查。结果 在傣族和汉族父母养育行为,积极情感均占主要地位;在父母养育方式的情感温暖、拒绝否认、惩罚严厉3因子上存在明显的民族差异;傣族父母对男孩的情感温暖、过分干涉与保护、拒绝否认、惩罚严厉行为明显多于女孩,而汉族只有父亲对男孩的惩罚严厉行为多于女孩;傣族和汉族父母教育方式存在较为一致的4种类型。结论 两个民族的父亲与母亲所执行的养育方式类型均存在较不一致的现象。傣、汉族初中生父母养育方式存在差异。     

Socialization Goals, Parenting Practices, and Peer Competence in Chinese and English Preschoolers

This cross-cultural study examines relations between parents' socialization goals and child-rearing practices, as well as their impact upon peer competence during early childhood. Participants were sixty-three Hong Kong-Chinese mothers, sixty-one English mothers and their preschool-aged children. Mothers completed questionnaires measuring socialization goals and practices. Their children took part in sociometric interviews. Results indicate both similarities and differences in child-rearing practices and in their impact on children's peer competence across the two cultures. Among both Hong Kong and English mothers, significant correlations were found between (i) socialization towards Filial Piety and Authoritarian practices, and (ii) valuing Socio-emotional Development and Authoritative Parenting. However, Chinese mothers reported stronger emphasis on socialization for Academic Achievement and Filial Piety, as well as greater use of Authoritarian Parenting practices, than English mothers. The use of Authoritarian practices among English mothers was, in accordance with past research, negatively correlated with peer competence among preschoolers. Findings highlight the influence of cultural values upon child socialization and upon the way that these values are translated into practice.     

Preimmigration beliefs of life success, postimmigration experiences, and acculturative stress: South Asian immigrants in the United States

This study retrospectively explored the links between preimmigration beliefs of life success and postimmigration experiences and their influence on acculturative stress among a group of parents who recently immigrated with their children from three non-English speaking countries-Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan-to the United States. The respondents, 75 sets of parents residing in New York City, participated in semistructured qualitative interviews. Discrepancies between the parents' anticipated life success in the United States and actual experiences after immigration were associated with the parents' expectations of their children fulfilling parents' own dreams of success. Two criteria specific to Asian culture that guided parental expectations were the responsibility of children in enhancing family pride and the role of education as a way to advance through the social class and the caste systems. Implications for understanding immigrant parents' sociocultural contexts, the potential negative impact of unrealistic expectations on children's development, and the significance of acculturative stress for parents as well as their children were discussed.     

Socialization Goals,Parenting Practices,and Peer Competence in Chinese and English Preschoolers

This cross-cultural study examines relations between parents' socialization goals and child-rearing practices, as well as their impact upon peer competence during early childhood. Participants were sixty-three Hong Kong-Chinese mothers, sixty-one English mothers and their preschool-aged children. Mothers completed questionnaires measuring socialization goals and practices. Their children took part in sociometric interviews. Results indicate both similarities and differences in child-rearing practices and in their impact on children's peer competence across the two cultures. Among both Hong Kong and English mothers, significant correlations were found between (i) socialization towards Filial Piety and Authoritarian practices, and (ii) valuing Socio-emotional Development and Authoritative Parenting. However, Chinese mothers reported stronger emphasis on socialization for Academic Achievement and Filial Piety, as well as greater use of Authoritarian Parenting practices, than English mothers. The use of Authoritarian practices among English mothers was, in accordance with past research, negatively correlated with peer competence among preschoolers. Findings highlight the influence of cultural values upon child socialization and upon the way that these values are translated into practice.     

Early teaching of Chinese literacy skills and later literacy outcomes

This study followed 88 children in Beijing and Hong Kong for three years to investigate the relationships between the early teaching of literacy skills and later literacy outcomes. The children were administered the Preschool and Primary Chinese Literacy Scale at the age of five years, and three years later. Their parents and teachers reported on their involvement in literacy teaching, the home/classroom literacy environment and their beliefs about language learning. Findings showed that the Hong Kong cohort significantly surpassed their Beijing counterparts in literacy attainments at age five and age eight. After controlling for age, site, maternal education and teacher qualification, formal literacy activities in early childhood significantly contributed to literacy attainment at primary school, whereas informal literacy experiences did not. Results suggest that the complicated nature of Chinese orthography may make early instruction particularly valuable in Chinese literacy acquisition. The psycholinguistic, pedagogical and sociocontextual accounts and implications of these findings are discussed.     

早期教育对母亲养育知识行为的影响

目的:探讨早期教育干预对母亲养育知识行为变化及其子女所产生的影响。方法:随机从两个区的社区卫生服务中心的儿保门诊选取90名3岁以下儿童,其中50名为干预组,接受干预后和对照组进行《城市社区儿童养育情况母亲问卷》调查,2岁以上儿童进行量表(CBCL)调查(家长问卷)。结果:干预组母亲具有较高的育儿知晓率,对照组儿童有较高的行为偏离检出率。结论:早期教育通过改变母亲的知、信、行对子女的发育产生积极的影响。     

Factors affecting physician visits in Chinese and Chinese immigrant samples

This study examines predictors of Western physician utilization using the Andersen's Behavioral Model of Health Services Use for Chinese elders who reside in Shanghai and immigrant Chinese elders who reside in the US Chinese elders are under-studied relative to their population size and in the US are known to underutilize the healthcare system. Underutilization is highly correlated with poor health and well-being. A unique dataset allowed us to examine predictors of physician utilization for Chinese elders who resided in different countries, in an effort to determine how being an immigrant affects utilization. One hundred and seventy-seven Chinese elders in Boston and 420 Chinese elders in Shanghai participated in the survey. Multiple regression analyses were conducted separately for each sample. Predictors of physician visits for the Boston sample are insurance status, health, and social network, and for the Shanghai sample, use of Chinese medicine, health, and marital status predicted physician visits. We found that access to care variables significantly affects physician utilization for immigrant elders, and that Chinese elders in Shanghai utilize a bicultural system of care. The results indicate that in order to create effective healthcare practices for elder Chinese, alternative healthcare beliefs should be understood by Western physicians.     

Not Raising a "Bubble Kid": Farm Parents''Attitudes and Practices Regarding the Employment, Training and Supervision of Their Children

This article explores farm parents' attitudes and practices regarding the employment, training and supervision of their children among a sample of 24 farm couples from southeastern Washington state. The goal was to gain a greater understanding of parental attitudes and practices in order to devise appropriate and meaningful efforts to improve the safety of children and adolescents involved in farm work. Demographic data regarding the farm families and their farm safety practices were collected through a short questionnaire, and parental attitudes and practices regarding the employment, training and supervision of their children were explored through open-ended, semi-structured interviews. The results suggest that farm parents have developed a logical and consistent set of beliefs and attitudes regarding the employment, training, and supervision of their children that is based in part on the belief that farm work is highly beneficial to their children's development. Safety interventions to reduce childhood farm injuries will have to acknowledge farm work as important and beneficial for children in order to maintain legitimacy and credibility. Nevertheless, because farm parents' practices regarding their children's employment reflect cultural beliefs and values regarding children and child-rearing, some recommended safety guidelines will be difficult to implement.     

Beyond a Cross-Cultural Definition of Child Maltreatment: Comparing Immigrants From the Caucasus and European Countries of the Former Soviet Union

A major barrier to accurate assessment and effective intervention in situations of children at risk among immigrant families could be lack of knowledge what they consider to be the boundaries for inappropriate child rearing practices, their rationale for these beliefs and their help seeking patterns in situations of maltreatment. To acquire knowledge about this subject among immigrant parents from different regions of the Former Soviet Union, a study was conducted in Israel with 53 immigrants from the European countries of this region and 52 immigrants from the Caucasus. A low level of willingness to request help from formal networks was found in both samples. Differences were found in the underlying rationale of the participants' perceptions of inappropriate parental behaviors. Immigrants from the Caucasus were concerned with the inappropriateness of the parents' behaviors by relating to what is normative and what is not while immigrants from the European countries were concerned with the potential harm to the child. The comparison between the two groups of immigrants illuminates the significance of adopting a differentiated approach when assessing and intervening in situations of child maltreatment among immigrants who speak the same language and could be considered as coming from the same nonwestern culture.     

Parental attitudes and decisions regarding MMR vaccination during an outbreak of measles among an undervaccinated Somali community in Minnesota

Incidence of measles is increasing in the US, largely due to transmission among growing unvaccinated communities. To elucidate predictors of parental decision to obtain measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine for unvaccinated children during a measles outbreak, we surveyed families among a vaccine-hesitant Somali community in Minnesota. The survey assessed attitudes and beliefs about MMR vaccine, motivators for vaccinating, and intention to vaccinate future children on time. Among 300 families surveyed, 95% vaccinated their child with MMR due to fear of measles. The predominating parental concern about MMR vaccine (71%) was a fallacious presumed connection between vaccination and autism. Only 41% of parents intended to vaccinate future children on time with MMR; parents who received recommendations for MMR vaccination from multiple sources were more likely than other parents to intend to do so. These findings support the importance of diverse outreach efforts to increase vaccine coverage among undervaccinated communities.     

Knowledge of Cardiovascular Health Among Chinese, Korean and Vietnamese Immigrants to the US

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death among Asian Americans, the majority of whom are foreign-born. However, CVD and risk factor data is sparse for specific Asian immigrant populations. To assess knowledge and understanding of CVD and risk factors within Chinese, Korean and Vietnamese immigrant populations, we conducted eight focus groups of 77 participants between 36 and 84?years old. Participants correctly identified signs and symptoms for heart attacks while knowledge about stroke was incomplete. While poor diet, lack of exercise, older age, and high cholesterol were frequently discussed as risk factors, mechanisms perceived as contributing to heart disease were influenced primarily by non-Western paradigms. Non-Western remedies were discussed in detail among Chinese and Vietnamese participants. All participants desired more information, and identified barriers to effective communication with healthcare providers. A deeper understanding of beliefs and barriers faced by Asian immigrants can help guide health promotion efforts.     

Parental beliefs and child-rearing attitudes and mental health problems among schoolchildren

OBJECTIVE: To verify the prevalence and identify the risk factors related to mental health problems among schoolchildren and its possible association with the beliefs and educational attitudes of parents/caretakers. METHODS: Cross-sectional study with a stratified probabilistic sample (n=454) of first to third-graders from public and private schools in Southeastern Brazil. Standardized instruments were administered to parents/caretakers by trained interviewers, including screening questionnaires for mental health problems among children and parents/caretakers; a questionnaire on beliefs and attitudes; and a questionnaire for socio-economic status. Chi-square tests and logistic regression models were used for statistical analysis. RESULTS: We found 35.2% prevalence of clinical/borderline cases among students. Parents/caretakers that believed in corporal punishment as a child-rearing method used physical aggression towards their children more frequently (64.8%). Logistic regression models showed that the act of hitting the child with a belt was associated to conduct problems and to overall mental health problems among schoolchildren in the presence of other risk factors: child gender (male), parents/caretakers with mental health problems, and adverse socioeconomic conditions. CONCLUSIONS: The high prevalence of mental health problems among schoolchildren and its association with child-rearing methods and mental health problems among parents/caretakers indicate the need for psycho-educational interventions aimed to reduce physical abuse and mental health problems in childhood.