Neighbourhood and individual socioeconomic inequalities in smoking: the role of physical neighbourhood stressors

OBJECTIVE: To explore the association between physical neighbourhood stressors and smoking, and the contribution of these stressors to neighbourhood and individual socioeconomic inequalities in smoking. METHODS: Data were analysed of participants of the baseline measurement of the Dutch GLOBE study (1991), aged 20 years and older, who lived in 79 neighbourhoods of the city of Eindhoven (n = 9062). The neighbourhood socioeconomic environment was assessed from aggregated self reported information of participants' education and occupation level, and employment status. Neighbourhood stressors included were the physical quality (decay), required police attention, noise pollution from traffic, and population density in neighbourhoods. Current smokers were distinguished from previous and never smokers. RESULTS: Compared with those living in the most advantaged neighbourhoods, residents living in the socioeconomically most disadvantaged neighbourhoods were more likely to smoke (adjusted for age, sex, education, occupation, and employment status) (OR = 1.24, 95% CI 1.05 to 1.46). An increase in a summary neighbourhood stressor score was associated with smoking, independently of the neighbourhood socioeconomic environment (OR = 1.57, 95% CI 1.11 to 2.21, in the neighbourhoods with the highest stress score). Adjustment for the score substantially reduced the odds ratio for living in the socioeconomic most disadvantaged neighbourhoods (OR = 1.03, 95% CI 0.84 to 1.28, for those in the most disadvantaged neighbourhoods). Neighbourhood stressors contributed 10% to the increased probability of smoking in the lowest educated persons. CONCLUSIONS: Physical neighbourhood stressors are related to smoking and contribute substantially to neighbourhood inequalities in smoking over and above individual level characteristics.     

The independent contribution of individual-, neighbourhood-, and country-level socioeconomic position on attitudes towards intimate partner violence against women in sub-Saharan Africa: A multilevel model of direct and moderating effects

We examined associations between country, neighbourhood, and individual socioeconomic position (SEP) and attitudes towards intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW). We applied multivariable multilevel logistic regression analysis on Demographic and Health Survey data for 165,983 women and 68,501 men nested within 7465 communities from 17 countries in sub-Saharan Africa collected between 2003 and 2007. Contrary to expectation women were 34% more likely to justify IPVAW than men. We found that sex moderates associations of individual-, neighbourhood-, and country-level SEP with attitudes towards IPVAW. There was a significant positive interaction effect between sex and education attainment; women with no education were more likely to justify IPVAW than men with no education. Negative sex interaction with household wealth status indicates that differences in attitude are less pronounced among women. Unemployed men were more likely to justify IPVAW. Interaction effects indicate that the association of neighbourhood socioeconomic disadvantage with attitudes was more pronounced among women than among men. The association of country-level SEP with attitudes towards IPVWA was inconclusive. There was some evidence that neighbourhood modified the association between individual SEP and attitudes towards IPV. Also, there was cross-level interaction between country and neighbourhood SEP. Neighbourhood and individual SEP were independently associated with attitudes towards IPVAW. The relationship with country-level SEP was inconclusive. The findings underscore the need to implement public health prevention/intervention strategies not only at the level of individual SEP but also at the neighbourhood level.     

Subjective social status and health in young people

Health inequalities according to objective socioeconomic position (SEP), have been well-documented. Yet, in young people the associations are negligible. Recently, research on the association of subjective social status (SSS), and adult health has begun to accumulate. Studies on young people are rare and describe societies with large income inequalities. Here, we investigated the association between SSS and health, while controlling for own and familial SEP. The study population consisted of 15-year-olds (N = 2369) who have grown up in a context of low social inequalities. Data were derived from surveys carried out in 2004 in 29 secondary schools in Helsinki. The SSS was measured with an indicator specific to and validated for adolescents (a societal ladder). Outcome measures were self-rated health, health complaints, presence of limiting longstanding illness (LLI) and GHQ-12 caseness (indicating psychiatric morbidity). The SSS associated strongly with all health measures. Adjusting for objective socioeconomic measures attenuated the associations; although they all remained statistically significant apart from LLI among girls. The subjective assessment contributes to health inequalities in young people largely independent of objective SEP. Subjective ratings most probably capture aspects of social hierarchy that are more subtle and less well represented than in conventional measures.     

Neighbourhood context and abuse among immigrant and non-immigrant women in Canada: findings from the Maternity Experiences Survey

Objectives

To examine the relationship between neighbourhood deprivation and concentration of immigrants, and abuse among immigrant women versus non-immigrant women.

Methods

Using data from the Canadian Maternity Experiences Survey (un-weighted sample N?=?5,679 and weighted sample N?=?68,719) linked to the neighbourhoods Census data, we performed contextual analysis to compare abuse prevalence among: immigrants ≤5?years, immigrants >5?years and Canadian-born. We identified two level effect modifiers: living in high (≤15?% of households at or below low-income cut-off- [LICO]) versus low-income (>15?% below LICO) neighbourhoods and living in high (≥25?%) versus low immigrant (<25?%) neighbourhoods. Individual socioeconomic position (SEP), family variables and neighbourhood SEP or percentage of immigrants were considered in different logistic regression models.

Results

Immigrant women were less likely to experience abuse even upon adjustment for individual SEP, family variables and neighbourhood characteristics. The protective effect of the neighborhood was stronger among immigrant women living in low-income and high immigrant neighborhoods, irrespective of length of stay in Canada.

Conclusion

Policies and interventions to reduce abuse among immigrant women need to consider neighbourhood’s SEP and concentration of immigrants.     

Associations of neighbourhood sociodemographic characteristics with depressive and anxiety symptoms in older age: Results from a 5-wave study over 15 years

We examined the long-term association between objective neighbourhood sociodemographic characteristics (index of socioeconomic position (SEP), average income, percent low-income earners, average house price, percent immigrants and urban density) with depressive and anxiety symptoms, covering five 3-year waves of the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam (n = 3,772). Multi-level regression models assessed each neighbourhood-level characteristic separately, adjusting for individual-level covariates. A higher percentage of immigrants and higher urban density, but not other neighbourhood characteristics, were significantly associated with depressive and anxiety symptoms over time in models adjusted for individual SEP. Results of time interaction models indicated that the associations were stable over the 15-year period.     

Subjective social status and mortality: the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing

Self-perceptions of own social position are potentially a key aspect of socioeconomic inequalities in health, but their association with mortality remains poorly understood. We examined whether subjective social status (SSS), a measure of the self-perceived element of social position, was associated with mortality and its role in the associations between objective socioeconomic position (SEP) measures and mortality. We used Cox regression to model the associations between SSS, objective SEP measures and mortality in a sample of 9972 people aged?≥?50 years from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing over a 10-year follow-up (2002–2013). Our findings indicate that SSS was associated with all-cause, cardiovascular, cancer and other mortality. A unit decrease in the 10-point continuous SSS measure increased by 24 and 8% the mortality risk of people aged 50–64 and?≥?65 years, respectively, after adjustment for age, sex and marital status. The respective estimates for cardiovascular mortality were 36 and 11%. Adjustment for all covariates fully explained the association between SSS and cancer mortality, and partially the remaining associations. In people aged 50–64 years, SSS mediated to a varying extent the associations between objective SEP measures and all-cause mortality. In people aged?≥?65 years, SSS mediated to a lesser extent these associations, and to some extent was associated with mortality independent of objective SEP measures. Nevertheless, in both age groups, wealth partially explained the association between SSS and mortality. In conclusion, SSS is a strong predictor of mortality at older ages, but its role in socioeconomic inequalities in mortality appears to be complex.     

Who does well where? Exploring how self-rated health differs across diverse people and neighborhoods

This work establishes whether neighborhood disadvantage amplifies the impact of socioeconomic position (SEP) on a graded measure of self-rated health (SRH). SRH data were taken from 10,932 adults recruited across 200 Brisbane neighborhoods. After adjusting for demographics, those who lived in the most disadvantaged neighborhoods were more likely to report poor SRH than those living in the least disadvantaged neighborhoods (OR=2.67). Those with the lowest SEP and lived in the most advantaged neighborhoods had a similar probability of reporting excellent SRH as those with the highest SEP living in the most disadvantaged neighborhoods. This work highlights the importance of examining SEP and neighborhood-level disadvantage simultaneously when planning communities.     

Love thy neighbour? Associations of social capital and crime with physical activity amongst women

Using a multilevel study design, this study examined the associations between social characteristics of individuals and neighbourhoods and physical activity among women. Women (n = 1405) recruited from 45 Melbourne (Australia) neighbourhoods of varying socioeconomic disadvantage provided data on social factors and leisure-time: physical activity; walking; and walking in one’s own neighbourhood. Individual level social factors were number of neighbours known and social participation. Neighbourhood-level social characteristics (interpersonal trust, norms of reciprocity, social cohesion) were derived by aggregating survey data on these constructs within neighbourhoods. Objective data on crimes within neighbourhoods were obtained from Victoria Police. In bivariable regression models, all social variables at both the individual and neighbourhood level were positively associated with odds of physical activity, walking, and walking in one’s own neighbourhood. Associations with individual social participation (associated with all three physical activity variables) and neighbourhood interpersonal trust (associated with overall physical activity only) remained significant in multivariable models. Neither neighbourhood crime against the person nor incivilities were associated with any form of physical activity. These results demonstrate that women who participated in local groups or events and, less consistently, women living in neighbourhoods where residents trusted one another, were more likely to participate in leisure-time physical activity. While redressing macro-level social and economic policies that contribute to neighbourhood inequalities remains a priority, public health initiatives aimed at promoting physical activity could consider focusing on fostering social interactions targeting both individuals and communities. Further investigation of causal mechanisms underlying these associations is required.     

A simultaneous analysis of neighbourhood and childhood socio-economic environment with self-assessed health and health-related behaviours

Childhood socio-economic environment and neighbourhood socio-economic environment later in life are closely related. However, few studies have considered their effects simultaneously. Using cross-sectional data of approximately 8000 respondents in 86 neighbourhoods in the city of Eindhoven, The Netherlands, we study associations of both determinants with self-assessed health, smoking, alcohol consumption and overweight. Growing up in a low socio-economic environment increased the probability to live a more deprived neighbourhood in adulthood. Controlling for individual socio-economic characteristics, both childhood and neighbourhood socio-economic environment were related to smoking and overweight, but not with excessive alcohol consumption. Associations between childhood socio-economic environment and smoking and overweight are still substantial after controlling for neighbourhood socio-economic environment. Similarly, neighbourhood inequalities in smoking and overweight remain substantial after controlling for childhood socio-economic environment.     

Neighbourhood inequalities in physical inactivity: the role of neighbourhood attractiveness, proximity to local facilities and safety in the Netherlands

We investigated the association between the neighbourhood socioeconomic environment and physical inactivity, and explored the contribution of neighbourhood characteristics to this association. Data were analysed of 20-69 years old participants of the Dutch GLOBE study who lived in 78 neighbourhoods of Eindhoven (n = 8.767). The neighbourhood socioeconomic environment was assessed from aggregated self-reported information of participants' education and occupation level, and employment status. Aspects of physical inactivity investigated were based on the time spent on (a) walking and cycling to shops or work, (b) walking, cycling and gardening in leisure time, and (c) participation in sports activities. Characteristics of neighbourhoods included the proximity to food shops, general physical design of neighbourhoods, quality of green facilities, noise pollution from traffic and required police attention as evaluated by municipal services (professionals) responsible for these characteristics. Compared to those living in the most advantaged neighbourhoods, residents living in the quartile of socio-economically most disadvantaged neighbourhoods were more likely to walk or cycle to shops or work, but less likely to walk, cycle or garden in leisure time and less likely to participate in sports activities (adjusted for age, sex and individual educational level). Neighbourhood inequalities in walking or cycling to shops or work were not mediated by specific neighbourhood characteristics included in our analyses. The increased probability of almost never walking, cycling and gardening in leisure time in the most disadvantaged neighbourhoods was partly mediated by a poorer general physical design in these neighbourhoods. Similarly, the increased probability of almost never participating in sports activities in the most disadvantaged neighbourhoods was partly mediated by larger amounts of required police attention. The direction of neighbourhood inequalities differs for aspects of physical inactivity. Neighbourhood characteristics are related to physical inactivity and contribute to neighbourhood socioeconomic inequalities in physical inactivity.     

Socioeconomic determinants of mortality in two Canadian provinces: multilevel modelling and neighborhood context

The influence of individual and contextual socioeconomic variables on mortality is compared in two Canadian provinces, Manitoba and Nova Scotia. Although differing substantially in size, ethnic mix, and history, both provinces provide greater access to health and social services as well as fewer income inequalities than the United States. A total of 8032 Manitoba respondents (followed from 1996-97 to 2002) and 2116 Nova Scotia respondents (followed from 1990 to 1999) were linked to the appropriate Canadian census as a source of neighborhood characteristics. Data were analyzed using individual- and multi-level logistic regression. Well-educated and higher income individuals were less likely to die during follow-up. No significant direct effect was found between neighborhood socioeconomic characteristics and mortality. However, both provinces showed an increased importance of individual income vis-à-vis mortality in advantaged neighborhoods relative to disadvantaged neighborhoods. Additional Manitoba analyses showed a "healthy mover" effect among respondents changing place of residence, regardless of whether they moved to more advantaged or more disadvantaged neighborhoods. The findings are discussed in the context of differences in health and health care among Canada, the United States, and other OECD countries.     

Neighbourhood disadvantage and smoking: Examining the role of neighbourhood-level psychosocial characteristics

PurposeThis study aims to determine if neighbourhood psychosocial characteristics contribute to inequalities in smoking among residents from neighbourhoods of differing socioeconomic disadvantage.MethodsThis cross-sectional study includes 11,035 residents from 200 neighbourhoods in Brisbane, Australia in 2007. Self-reported measures were obtained for smoking and neighbourhood psychosocial characteristics (perceptions of incivilities, crime and safety, and social cohesion). Neighbourhood socioeconomic disadvantage was measured using a census-derived index. Data were analysed using multilevel logistic regression random intercept models.ResultsSmoking was associated with neighbourhood disadvantage; this relationship remained after adjustment for individual-level socioeconomic position. Area-level perceptions of crime and safety and social cohesion were not independently associated with smoking, and did not explain the higher prevalence of smoking in disadvantaged areas; however, perceptions of incivilities showed an independent effect.ConclusionsSome neighbourhood psychosocial characteristics seem to contribute to the higher rates of smoking in disadvantaged areas.     

Neighbourhood characteristics and mortality in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study

BACKGROUND: This study investigates the relationship between neighbourhood characteristics and mortality (all-cause, cardiovascular disease [CVD], and cancer) in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study (ARIC). METHODS: Analysis was limited to African-American and white participants 45-64 years of age at baseline whose records were linked to census data. Deaths ascertained through 31 December 1999 were included in the analysis. Individual-level characteristics were obtained from the baseline interview. A composite index was used to characterize the neighbourhood socioeconomic environment. Proportional hazards regression was used to estimate the effect of neighbourhood socioeconomic status (SES) index and family income on the survival time. RESULTS: The rate of mortality adjusted for age and gender was highest among those who lived in disadvantaged neighbourhoods and were of lower SES. In general, all-cause and CVD mortality rates decreased with increasing neighbourhood SES advantage and family income in all race-gender groups. Although this pattern generally persisted after adjustment for individual socioeconomic factors, statistically significant associations persisted for CVD mortality in whites only (hazard ratio = 1.4, 95% CI: 1.0, 2.0) for most disadvantaged versus most advantaged tertile). When compared with the most affluent participants living in the most advantaged neighbourhoods, the increased risk of all-cause and CVD mortality associated with being poor and living in the most disadvantaged neighbourhoods was equivalent to being 11 and 13 years older at baseline for whites and African Americans, respectively. CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate that neighbourhood socioeconomic characteristics are associated with modest increases in CVD mortality in white adults. The lack of neighbourhood effects in African Americans needs to be interpreted with caution due to the limited range in the characteristics of the neighbourhood from which these participants were drawn.     

Can the built environment reduce health inequalities? A study of neighbourhood socioeconomic disadvantage and walking for transport

Residents of socioeconomically disadvantaged neighbourhoods are more likely to walk for transport than their counterparts in advantaged neighbourhoods; however, the reasons for higher rates of transport walking in poorer neighbourhoods remain unclear. We investigated this issue using data from the HABITAT study of physical activity among 11,037 mid-aged residents of 200 neighbourhoods in Brisbane, Australia. Using a five-step mediation analysis and multilevel regression, we found that higher levels of walking for transport in disadvantaged neighbourhoods was associated with living in a built environment more conducive to walking (i.e. greater street connectivity and land use mix) and residents of these neighbourhoods having more limited access to a motor vehicle. The health benefits that accrue to residents of disadvantaged neighbourhoods as a result of their higher levels of walking for transport might help offset the negative effects of less healthy behaviours (e.g. smoking, poor diet), thus serving to contain or reduce neighbourhood inequalities in chronic disease.     

Does ethnic diversity affect well-being and allostatic load among people across neighbourhoods in England?

Modern societies are facing unprecedented changes in their ethnic composition. Increasing ethnic diversity poses critical new challenges as people interact with new cultures, norms, and values, or avoid such encounters. Heated academic and political debates focus on whether and how changes in ethnic composition affect societies and local communities. Yet, there is insufficient scientific evidence of how living in a more diverse society affects individuals' well-being and health. The aim of this study is to test the extent to which increasing neighbourhood ethnic diversity affects individuals’ subjective health and well-being and objective stress levels as measured by allostatic load.We analyse a large panel data set containing over 47,000 English respondents living in 15,545 neighbourhoods in England from the British Household Panel Survey and the UK Household Longitudinal Study, from 2004 to 2011. We match respondents to neighbourhoods and merge contextual information about levels of neighbourhood ethnic diversity and deprivation from UK Censuses, whilst controlling for background characteristics. We distinguish between short- and long-term effects of ethnic diversity on individual subjective well-being and health as well as allostatic load using a set of multilevel mixed-effects models. We make cautious causal interpretations by estimating fixed-effects models and cross-lagged panel models. We assess the robustness of our findings by replicating our analysis using alternative composite measures of diversity and allostatic load.In the short-term, increasing ethnic diversity of local areas is associated with a dip in subjective well-being, but short-term changes are not prolonged or profound enough to affect chronic stress (allostatic load). The initial negative impact of ethnic diversity on subjective well-being and health dissipates with time. In the long-term, no effects of ethnic diversity on well-being and health or chronic stress (allostatic load) are detected.Understanding the dynamic nature of the effects of ethnic diversity on individuals has critical implications for social and public health policies – issues prominent in, for example, the UK (Brexit) and the US (election of President Donald Trump). Our analysis identifies and enables the promotion of beneficial effects, while targeting the pernicious components to turn diversity into a valuable asset in a globalising world.     

Stress-Related Poor Diet Quality Does Not Explain Socioeconomic Inequities in Health: A Structural Equation Mediation Analysis of Gender-Specific Pathways

BackgroundPsychosocial stress and diet quality individually mediate associations between socioeconomic position (SEP) and health; however, it is not known whether they jointly mediate these associations. This is an important question because stress-related unhealthy eating is often invoked as an explanation for diet-related health inequities, particularly among women, seemingly with no empirical justification.ObjectiveThis study examined whether psychosocial stress and diet quality jointly mediated associations between SEP and self-rated health in women and men.DesignMultiple mediating pathways were modeled using data from the cross-sectional International Food Policy Study.Participants and settingData were collected from 5,645 adults (aged 18 years or older) in Canada during 2018 and 2019.Main outcome measuresParticipants reported SEP using indicators of materialist (educational attainment and perceived income adequacy) and psychosocial pathways (subjective social status), along with psychosocial stress, dietary intake (to assess overall diet quality via Healthy Eating Index-2015 scores), and self-rated health.Statistical analyses performedStructural equation modeling modeled pathways linking SEP (ie, educational attainment, perceived income adequacy, and subjective social status) with self-rated health mediated by psychosocial stress and diet quality, stratified by gender.ResultsThere was no evidence that psychosocial stress and diet quality jointly mediated associations between SEP and self-rated health in women or men. Diet quality mediated associations between educational attainment and self-rated health in women and men, with some evidence that it mediated associations between subjective social status and self-rated health in men (P = 0.051). Psychosocial stress mediated associations between perceived income adequacy and self-rated health in women and men, and between subjective social status and self-rated health in women.ConclusionsAlthough often invoked as an explanation for diet-related health inequities, stress-related poor diet quality did not mediate associations between SEP and self-rated health in women or men. Psychosocial stress and diet quality individually mediated some of these associations, with some differences by gender.     

Individual and household-level socioeconomic position is associated with harmful alcohol consumption behaviours among adults

Aim: To examine associations between individual‐, household‐ and neighbourhood‐level socioeconomic position (SEP) and harmful alcohol consumption. Method: Adults aged 18–76 residing in 50 neighbourhoods in Melbourne completed a postal questionnaire (n= 2349, 58.7% response rate). Alcohol‐related behaviours were classified by risk of short‐ and long‐term harm. Individual‐, household‐ and neighbourhood‐level SEP were ascertained by education, household income and proportion of low‐income households, respectively. The association were examined by multi‐level logistic regression. Results: Participants lower education or household income were less likely to consume alcohol frequently compared to their more‐advantaged counterparts. Lower‐educated men were more likely to be at risk of short‐term harm [OR 1.75 (1.23 – 2.48)]. Low‐income women were less likely to be at risk of short‐term harm [OR 0.44 (0.23 – 0.81)]. Neighbourhood disadvantage was not associated with alcohol consumption. Conclusion: Men and women from socioeconomically advantaged backgrounds were more frequent consumers of alcohol, whereas their disadvantaged counterparts drank less frequently but in greater quantities on each drinking occasion Implications: Socioeconomic disadvantage at the individual and household levels may be an important determinant of alcohol consumption among Australian adults.     

Stress and health behaviors as potential mediators of the relationship between neighborhood quality and allostatic load

Purpose

Neighborhood quality is associated with health. Increasingly, researchers are focusing on the mechanisms underlying that association, including the role of stress, risky health behaviors, and subclinical measures such as allostatic load (AL).

How do objective and subjective assessments of neighbourhood influence social and physical functioning in older age? Findings from a British survey of ageing

The objective was to investigate associations between type of area, individuals' perceptions of their neighbourhoods, and indicators of social and physical functioning. Social functioning was measured using numbers of social activities and frequency of social contacts in the past month. Physical functioning was measured with Townsend's Activities of Daily Living scale. The study was a British cross-sectional population survey of people aged 65 plus living at home. Multilevel analyses indicated that respondents who lived in affluent areas were less likely to have low levels of social activity independently of individual demographic and socio-economic characteristics. Individuals' perceptions of the area as neighbourly and having good facilities were also independently associated with lower likelihood of low social activities. Affluence of the area and perceived neighbourhood were associated with physical functioning, although these associations disappeared once adjustment was made for individuals' characteristics. Both objective and more subjective measures of the neighbourhood independently contributed to our understanding of the determinants of social and physical functioning in older age. The unique value of this paper is its inclusion of the influence of perceived neighbourhood on the social and physical functioning of an older population, which are key components of active ageing.     

Individual,social and environmental correlates of physical activity among women living in socioeconomically disadvantaged neighbourhoods

Women living in socioeconomically disadvantaged neighbourhoods are at heightened risk for physical inactivity, but little is known about the correlates of physical activity among this group. Using a social-ecological framework, this study aimed to determine the individual, social and neighbourhood environmental correlates of physical activity amongst women living in such neighbourhoods. During 2007–2008 women (n = 4108) aged 18–45 years randomly selected from urban and rural neighbourhoods of low socioeconomic status in Victoria, Australia completed the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (long). They reported on individual (self-efficacy, enjoyment, intentions, outcome expectancies, skills), social (childcare, social support from family and friends/colleagues, dog ownership) and neighbourhood environmental (neighbourhood cohesion, aesthetics, personal safety, ‘walking environment’) factors. Multinomial logistic regression was used to examine the odds of increasing categories of leisure time physical activity (LTPA) and transport-related physical activity (TRPA) for each individual, social and environmental factor. In partially adjusted analyses, all individual, social and environmental variables were positively associated with LTPA, while all individual factors, family and friend support and the walking environment were positively associated with TRPA. In fully adjusted multivariable models, all individual and social factors remained significantly associated with LTPA, while self-efficacy, enjoyment, intentions, social support, and neighbourhood ‘walking environment’ variables remained significantly associated with TRPA. In conclusion, individual and social factors were most important for LTPA, while individual, social and neighbourhood environmental factors were all associated with TRPA. Acknowledging the cross-sectional design, the findings highlight the importance of different levels of potential influence on physical activity in different domains, which should be considered when developing strategies to promote physical activity amongst women living in socioeconomically disadvantaged neighbourhoods.