Meal schemas during a preload decrease subsequent eating

Two studies examined the effects of the induction of a meal schema on participants' behavior. In the first, participants ate identical preloads either in a traditional meal context or in a non-meal ("tasting session") context where the usual cues associated with meals, such as the use of dishes/utensils and being seated at a table, were present or absent, respectively. In a questionnaire assessing their impressions of the situation, participants in the meal condition gave evidence of the activation of a meal schema while the latter did not. That is, the former, in comparison with the latter, were more likely to spontaneously describe the situation using meal-related words, less likely to describe the situation using taste-related words, and rated the situation as feeling more like a meal. In the second study, participants eating the preload in an identical meal context, in comparison with those eating it in a non-meal context, ate less at a subsequent test meal. It was concluded that social cues in the form of Abstract knowledge about eating in one's culture may sometimes have a greater influence on food intake than physiological cues related to nutritional status.     

Influence of social norms and palatability on amount consumed and food choice

In two parallel studies, we examined the effect of social influence and palatability on amount consumed and on food choice. In Experiment 1, which looked at amount consumed, participants were provided with either palatable or unpalatable food; they were also given information about how much previous participants had eaten (large or small amounts) or were given no information. In the case of palatable food, participants ate more when led to believe that prior participants had eaten a great deal than when led to believe that prior participants had eaten small amounts or when provided with no information. This social-influence effect was not present when participants received unpalatable food. In Experiment 2, which looked at food choice, some participants learned that prior participants had chosen the palatable food, others learned that prior participants had chosen the unpalatable food, while still others received no information about prior participants' choices. The social-influence manipulation had no effect on participants' food choices; nearly all of them chose the palatable food. The results were discussed in the context of Churchfield's (1995) distinction between judgments about matters of fact and judgments about preferences. The results were also used to illustrate the importance of palatability as a determinant of eating behavior.     

Dynamic shifts in Chinese eating behaviors

The purpose of the study is to examine the dynamic eating behaviors of the Chinese people, focusing on snacking and the choice of cooking methods, and to identify the influences of socioeconomic factors on these eating behaviors. Data for this study were from the China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS). There were 11780 subjects, older than two years (y), from the 1991 and 11169 from the 2004 surveys respectively. Logistic regressions of pooled data were performed to evaluate how socioeconomic status (SES) was associated with two eating behaviors: snacking and consuming excessive amounts of fried foods. Simulation techniques were used to clarify the effects of the results that included significant interaction terms. Results showed that the rapid shift in the food and nutrient profile of the Chinese population is accompanied by equally profound changes in meal and cooking patterns. Snacking behavior is beginning to emerge and there are shifts away from the steaming and boiling of food to the, less healthy, frying of food. Income is positively associated with the consumption of both snacks and excessive fried food. Urban residents are also more likely to snack and to consume excessive amounts of fried foods than rural residents. These findings indicate that eating behaviors are beginning to change rapidly toward less healthy options in China. SES plays a vital role in the early stages of the eating behavior transition in China. Future health promotion programs targeting the higher-SES population will exert far-reaching effects on the improvement of health status in this group.     

Definitions of night eating in adolescent girls

OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence of night eating in a community cohort of black and white girls, using different definitions of night eating as described in the literature. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Three-day food diaries collected as part of the National Growth and Health Study were examined to identify episodes of night eating, which was defined in five different ways: eating >25% of daily caloric intake after the last evening meal, eating >25% of daily caloric intake after 7 pm, eating >50% of daily caloric intake after the last evening meal, eating >50% of daily caloric intake after 7 pm, or eating between 11 pm and 4:59 am. RESULTS: Frequency of night eating varied tremendously depending on how the behavior was defined. For the least restrictive definition (>25% of total intake after last meal), 50% to 70% of girls reported one night eating event; for the most restrictive (>50% of total intake after last meal), only 1.5% of 11-year-old girls' diaries and 3.5% of 19-year-old girls' diaries contained a night eating event. The frequency of night eating decreased dramatically (typically by a factor of 10) if the inclusion criteria required multiple night eating events in a given week. DISCUSSION: A standard definition of night eating behavior is needed to advance the field. An agreed-on operationalized definition that includes time of day, amount of calories consumed, and a frequency criterion would enable cross-study comparisons and encourage the examination of developmental and clinical considerations of night eating behavior.     

Dynamics of food habits of newly married couples: food-related activities and attitudes towards food

Sixty young couples were interviewed on three occasions—before marriage, after 5 months of marriage and after 21/2 years of marriage. The roles taken by each spouse in food provision and preparation are reported. Expressed attitudes towards food- and health-related factors were also discussed.
Wives took the major responsibility for food purchasing and preparation, although husbands played a significant role. The impact of children on these roles remains to be seen.
After 2 1/2 years of marriage, there was a reduction in the number of shared meals, with the exception of the evening meal which remained the focal meal at which to influence a spouse's eating habits. The opportunity for more individualized meals during the day may lessen potential conflict over who gets their preferred foods in the evening.
There were small but noticeable differences between wives and husbands stated likes and dislikes, and stated concerns about food. These may affect how much and in which way people are prepared to change their eating habits, and should be taken into account when planning nutrition education programmes.     

If you are good you can have a cookie: How memories of childhood food rules link to adult eating behaviors

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to determine whether memories of parental rules about food during childhood are linked to adult eating behaviors. METHOD: An adult community sample (N=122) (56% female, 44% male) with a mean age of 44.6 years completed self-report measures of weight and dieting history, current eating patterns, and recollection of different types of rules about food from their parents. Three types of food rules were assessed: (a) rules which restrict intake of certain foods, (b) rules which encourage food intake, and (c) rules where food is used to reward or punish behavior. RESULTS: Binge eating and dietary restraint in adulthood are significantly related to participants' recollection of their parents using food to control their behavior in childhood. These results held true regardless of body mass index (BMI), ethnicity, age, or childhood weight status. DISCUSSION: This study suggests that some childhood food rules may have a long-lasting impact on eating behaviors. Further research on the impact of using food to reward and punish children's behavior is needed to inform recommendations to parents regarding the use of food for behavioral control.     

Feeding strategies used by primary school meal staff and their impact on children's eating

Background:  In parent–child interactions, feeding strategies including pressure, restriction, modelling, rewards, encouragement and repeated taste exposure have been reliably shown to influence children's eating. Because there is no evidence that the psychosocial interactions inherent in the strategies are context-dependent, the present study investigated their utilisation during primary school meal supervision.
Methods:  A case study of one Local Authority in Wales was conducted involving eleven primary schools stratified into socio-economic quartiles. Focussed observations were carried out over two to three lunchtimes per school to explore the feeding strategies, outcomes and behaviours inherent in the dining hall context. These were supplemented by semi-structured interviews with catering staff and midday supervisors, which were carried out after the observation session.
Results:  Most feeding strategies used by school meal staff reflected those reported in the literature (e.g. pressure, encouragement and rewards), although purposeful modelling of eating behaviours was not found and the imposition of food norms, such as eating dessert last, was common. Dining hall staff readily, if not consistently, used these strategies, although the constraints and opportunities of each dining hall context influenced their selection and implementation. However, even if children left the service point with nutritionally balanced meals, they often failed to eat them.
Conclusions:  Because repeated taste exposure is known to increase liking for foods, further studies are recommended to investigate how the naturally occurring feeding strategies evident in primary school dining halls could be harnessed to encourage children to taste the nutritionally balanced schools meals that school meal transformation programmes will expose them to.     

Interviews with Low-Income Pennsylvanians Verify a Need to Enhance Eating Competence

Continuation of unhealthful dietary patterns and poor diet-related health outcomes among socioeconomically disadvantaged populations underscores the need to improve diet quality for this group. Enhancing eating competence, based on the Satter model of eating competence (ecSatter), may be one effective method to reach this goal, but requires substantiation in a low-income audience. This study utilized a qualitative approach to examine the congruence of the ecSatter model with the cognitive eating behaviors of a low-income audience. Structured interviews were conducted during summer of 2006 with 70 low-income adults in Pennsylvania. Themes about decisional factors that guide food selection, nutrition/health interests, and cognitive and affective responses to eating experiences were generated through content analysis. Thematic differences among eating competence levels and food security categories were examined. Nutrition information access preferences were also obtained. Eating competence, measured with the ecSatter Inventory, was low for this sample (mean 28.8±8.3). Convenience, mood, family, and availability of food at home, but not nutrition, were salient factors guiding meal and snack planning for both eating competent and noneating competent participants. Nearly equal proportions of persons with eating competence and without eating competence reported that they would make changes to their food purchases if they had more money to spend on food. Interestingly, for participants without eating competence, but not for those with eating competence, weight management played an important role in meal/snack planning, food purchases, and nutrition/health interests. ecSatter provided a tenable framework for rationalizing participants' cognitive and affective responses to eating experiences. Participants without eating competence were more likely to express negative thoughts and feelings associated with eating, regardless of food security status. The Internet, which was accessible to 80% (n=56) of participants, was the most frequently reported convenient method for accessing nutrition information. These findings lead us to recommend that increased attention be placed on cognitive eating behaviors of low-income adults to improve their diet quality.