Clinical management for malignant afferent loop obstruction

Afferent loop obstruction (ALO) is defined as duodenal or jejunal mechanical obstruction at the proximal anastomosis site of a gastrojejunostomy. With advances in chemotherapy, the incidence of malignant ALO is increasing. Malignant ALO can be complicated by ischemia, gangrenous bowel, pancreatitis, and ascending cholangitis. Moreover, the general condition of patients with recurrent cancer is often poor. Therefore, accurate and rapid diagnosis and minimally invasive treatments are required. However, no review articles on the diagnosis and treatment of malignant ALO have been published. Through literature searching, we reviewed related articles published between 1959 and 2020 in the PubMed database. Herein, we present recent advances in the diagnosis and treatment of malignant ALO and describe future perspectives. Endoscopic transluminal self-expandable metal stent (SEMS) placement is considered the standard treatment for malignant ALO, as this procedure is well established and less invasive. However, with the development of interventional endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) in recent years, the usefulness of EUS-guided gastrojejunostomy has been reported. Moreover, through indirect comparison, this approach has been reported to be superior to transluminal SEMS placement. It is expected that a safer and less invasive treatment method will be established through the continued advancement and innovation of interventional endoscopy techniques.     

Malignant biliary obstruction: From palliation to treatment

Malignant obstruction of the bile duct from cholangiocarcinoma, pancreatic adenocarcinoma, or other tumors is a common problem which may cause debilitating symptoms and increase the risk of subsequent surgery. The optimal treatment - including the decision whether to treat prior to resection - depends on the type of malignancy, as well as the stage of disease. Preoperative biliary drainage is generally discouraged due to the risk of infectious complications, though some situations may benefit. Patients who require neoadjuvant therapy will require decompression for the prolonged period until attempted surgical cure. For pancreatic cancer patients, self-expanding metallic stents are superior to plastic stents for achieving lasting decompression without stent occlusion. For cholangiocarcinoma patients, treatment with percutaneous methods or nasobiliary drainage may be superior to endoscopic stent placement, with less risk of infectious complications or failure. For patients of either malignancy who have advanced disease with palliative goals only, the choice of stent for endoscopic decompression depends on estimated survival, with plastic stents favored for survival of < 4 mo. New endoscopic techniques may actually extend stent patency and patient survival for these patients by achieving local control of the obstructing tumor. Both photodynamic therapy and radiofrequency ablation may play a role in extending survival of patients with malignant biliary obstruction.     

Endoscopic stenting versus operative gastrojejunostomy for malignant gastric outlet obstruction-a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized and non-randomized trials

Background

Open surgical gastrojejunostomy (GJ) has been the treatment of choice, but it has high morbidity and mortality rates. During the last decade, endoscopic self-expandable metal stents (SEMS) have been used. This meta-analysis aimed to compare surgical GJ and endoscopic stenting in palliation of malignant gastric outlet obstruction (GOO).

Methods

A systematic search was conducted using MEDLINE, PubMed, EMBASE, Current Contents Connect, Cochrane library, Google Scholar, Science Direct, and Web of Science. The search identified 3 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and 14 non-RCTs reporting on patients who underwent surgical GJ or endoscopic stenting for malignant gastroduodenal outflow obstruction

Results

The results of the three RCTs demonstrated that SEMS resulted in comparable major [odds ratio (OR): 0.62, 95% confidence intervals (CI): 0.021-18.371] and minor (OR: 0.32, 95% CI: 0.049-2.089) complications in a shorter time to tolerating an oral intake (SEMS: 3.55 days and GJ: 7.15 days) and shorter hospital stay (SEMS: 5.1 days and GJ: 12.13 days, however, statistical insignificant P value =0.11). Among the non RCTs: SEMS resulted in a shorter time to tolerating an oral intake (SEMS: 1.48 days and GJ: 8.07 days, P value <0.01), similar rate of complications (OR: 0.33, 95% CI: 0.1-1.08), lower mortality (OR: 0.5, 95% CI: 0.21-1.20, P value <0.01) and a shorter hospital stay (SEMS: 7.61 days and GJ: 19.04 days, P value <0.0001). There was no significant difference between median survival times among RCTs and non RCTs.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that stent placement is associated with better short-term outcomes and hence, duodenal stenting is a safe means of palliating malignant gastric outflow obstruction. However, a large RCT is needed to systematically compare stent placement with GJ with regard to medical effects, quality of life and costs.     

Gastrojejunostomy versus stent placement in patients with malignant gastric outlet obstruction: a comparison in 95 patients

AIM: Gastrojejunostomy (GJJ) and duodenal stent placement are the most commonly used palliative treatment modalities for gastric outlet obstruction (GOO). In this retrospective study, we compared GJJ and stent placement with regard to medical effects. METHODS: Medical records of 95 patients who had undergone palliative treatment between 1994 and 2006 in a Dutch university hospital, were reviewed. Study outcomes were improvement of food intake, complications, persistent and recurrent symptoms, re-interventions, hospital stay, and survival. RESULTS: Fifty-three patients were referred for duodenal stent placement and 42 patients underwent GJJ. There were no differences in technical and clinical success and the incidence of minor and early major complications and survival. Food intake improved more rapidly after stent placement than GJJ (P = 0.01). The time to late major complications, recurrent obstructive symptoms and re-intervention was significantly shorter after stent placement than GJJ (P = 0.004, 0.002, and 0.004, respectively). Hospital stay was also shorter after stent placement than GJJ (P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that stent placement is associated with better short-term outcomes and GJJ with better long-term outcomes. A large randomized controlled trial is however needed to systematically compare stent placement with GJJ with regard to medical effects, quality of life and costs.     

Endoscopic palliation of biliary obstruction

Advanced pancreaticobiliary malignancy tends to be uncurable at presentation and causes significant morbidity for patients. Palliation for malignant biliary obstruction should be minimally invasive, cost-effective, and aim to improve quality of life of patients. Strategies of endoscopic palliation of malignant biliary obstruction can differ based on sites and degree of biliary obstruction with complex decisions of optimal stent type and placement that involve conscientious planning by a multidisciplinary team.     

Endoscopic palliation of colorectal cancer

Multiple endoscopic options exist for physicians seeking to provide palliative therapy for patients with colorectal cancer. Endoscopic decompression tubes can allow urgent stabilization for patients with malignant obstruction requiring some form of surgical palliation. Patients who are not candidates for palliative surgery can experience good symptomatic relief from malignant large bowel obstruction via laser therapy or placement of a colonic stent. Laser therapy can be used in conjunction with SEMS to recanalize and decompress large bowel in certain situations. The use of colonic stents is rapidly becoming more commonplace as acceptance of the technique becomes more widespread. Patients with unresectable disease may be able to avoid surgery altogether and achieve successful and lasting palliation of large bowel obstruction. Overall, they provide effective and durable palliation in patients with malignant obstruction, have an excellent risk/benefit profile, and are within the technical means of both gastroenterologists and interventional radiologists.     

Palliative treatment of esophageal tumors

In malignant dysphagia expandable metal stents are commonly used as palliative treatment, but early and late complications and the improvement of dysphagia have not been well described. This report summarizes our experience with expandable metal stents for malignant dysphagia. From 1995 to 2000, we placed 38 metal stents in 36 patients with malignant dysphagia from unresectable esophageal cancer (94.4%). Dysphagia scores, complications and modality of reintervention were evaluated. Dysphagia scores decreased from 3.2 before the stent placement to 2. Immediate complications occured in one patient because of severe pain, it was not possible to perform endoscopic treatments. Other complications included tracheoesophageal fistula (2 patients), tumor overgrowth (5 patients), new stent placements (2 patients), dislocation (2 patients). In conclusions expandable metal stents are safe and effective in the treatment of malignant dysphagia.     

内镜微波治疗晚期食管及贲门癌性梗阻的临床探讨

自1989年1月～1990年2月,25例晚期食管及贲门癌性梗阻患者经内镜微波组织凝固(MTC)治疗。其中食管癌12例,贲门癌13例,吞咽困难全部得到改善,18例患者可进软食。本文综述了MTC治疗的特点,认为内镜MTC对晚期食管及贲门癌性梗阻的治疗是一种安全有效的姑息疗法。     

Improved results for left-sided malignant colorectal obstruction with a proper selection for self expandable metal stent placement,surgical resection or diverting stoma

AimsEndoscopic placement of Self Expandable Metal Stents to relieve malignant colorectal obstruction has become a common therapeutic advancement in clinical practice.MethodsIn a 16 year period 145 patients had endoscopic placement of a Self-Expandable Metal Stent for acute/subacute left sided malignant colorectal obstruction in a center where gastroenterologists and surgeons cooperate in a daily basis, discussing indications.ResultsThere was no operative mortality and no major complication in placement of the stent. Technical and clinical success was respectively 94.5% and 91.8%. Consultation among specialists changed the preoperative indication in 60 patients.ConclusionsSelf-Expandable Metal Stents placement represents an important tool to treat patients with obstructing colorectal cancer. Surgical resection, diverting stoma or endoscopic stent placement should be chosen according to the clinical characteristics of each single patient. In this scenario, a close collaboration among specialists in selecting the most appropriate operative procedure is essential and brings to better results.     

自膨式金属内支架在恶性食管梗阻中的临床应用

目的：评价自膨式金属内支架（SEMS）治疗恶性食管梗阻的疗效。方法：38例恶性食管狭窄患者在荧光屏监视下置入42枚支架,包括带膜支架和裸露支架,国产支架和进口支架。结果：42例支架均一次性置入成功,技术成功率100％。术后患者吞咽困难及生活质量明显改善,未发生严重的并发症。结论：自膨式金属内支架缓解食管梗阻简单、快速、安全、有效。     

Malignant distal biliary obstruction: a systematic review and meta-analysis of endoscopic and surgical bypass results

BACKGROUND: Surgical bypass and endoscopic stents are available for palliative bypass of malignant distal biliary obstruction. AIM: Comparison of reported outcomes in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) which included surgery, endoscopic plastic stents or endoscopic metal stents in palliative relief of malignant distal biliary obstruction. METHODS: Systematic review and meta-analysis of published literature and conference proceedings review to June 2006. RESULTS: We found 24 studies, containing 2436 patients, which met our inclusion criteria. Endoscopic stenting with plastic stents (three studies) is associated with a lower risk of complications (RR 0.60, 95% CI 0.45-0.81), but a higher risk of recurrent biliary obstruction (RR 18.59, 95% CI 5.33 -64.86) than traditional surgical bypass. Self-expanding metal stents (seven studies) are associated with a significantly reduced risk of recurrent biliary obstruction at 4 months (RR 0.44, 95% CI 0.3, 0.63), or prior to death or end of study (RR 0.52, 95% CI 0.39-0.69), but are not superior to plastic stents in terms of technical success, therapeutic success, mortality or complications. Cost-effectiveness outcomes were not suitable for meta-analysis. No other plastic stent designs have been demonstrated to be superior to polyethylene stents (12 studies). CONCLUSIONS: Endoscopic metal stents are the intervention of choice in patients with malignant distal biliary obstruction, producing similar outcomes to plastic stents, but with improved patency rates.     

Percutaneous transhepatic hybrid biliary endoprostheses using both plastic and metallic stents for palliative treatment of malignant common bile duct obstruction

To evaluate clinical safety and efficacy of percutaneous transhepatic hybrid biliary prostheses for palliative treatment in patients with common bile duct obstruction caused by advanced malignancies. A total of 13 consecutive patients was treated with percutaneous transhepatic biliary endoprostheses concurrently using both plastic and metallic stents. Serum total bilirubin levels before and after stent placement were evaluated. The technical success rate, the period with no obstructive jaundice, patient survival and complications were also assessed. Median bilirubin levels decreased from 3.8 mg/dL before to 1.2 mg/dL after stent placement, and this difference was statistically significant. The median no‐jaundice period after bile duct stent placement was 6.0 months (range: 2–11 months), and overall survival time was 7.0 months. Of the 13 patients, nine did not have recurrent jaundice by the time of death, whereas four (31%) had recurrent jaundice. A second intervention was performed in these four patients. A new plastic stent was placed and jaundice did not recur up to the time of death. No serious complications such as cholangitis, pancreatitis or bile duct perforation developed. Percutaneous transhepatic hybrid biliary endoprostheses using both plastic and metallic stents can be useful as non‐invasive palliative treatment to relieve jaundice in patients with malignant obstructive jaundice.     

Role of self expandable stents in management of colorectal cancers

Acute malignant colorectal obstruction is a complication of colorectal cancer that can occur in 7%-29% of patients. Self-expanding metallic stent placement for malignant colorectal obstruction has gained popularity as a safe and effective procedure for relieving obstruction. This technique can be used in the palliation of malignant colorectal obstruction, as a bridge to elective surgery for resectable colorectal cancers, palliation of extracolonic malignant obstruction, and for nonmalignant etiologies such as anastomotic strictures, Crohn’s disease, radiation therapy, and diverticular diseases. Self-expanding metallic stent has its own advantages and disadvantages over the surgery in these indications. During the insertion of the self-expanding metallic stent, and in the follow-up, short term and long term morbidities should be kept in mind. The most important complications of the stents are perforation, stent obstruction, stent migration, and bleeding. Additionally, given the high risk of perforation, if a patient is treated or being considered fortreatmentwith antiangiogenic agents such as bevacizumab, it is not recommended to use self-expanding metallic stent as a palliative treatment for obstruction. Therefore, there is a need for careful clinical evaluation for each patient who is a candidate for this procedure. The purpose of this review was to evaluate self-expanding metallic stent in the management of the obstruction of the colon due to the colorectal and extracolonic obstruction.     

Current concepts in malignant bowel obstruction management

Malignant bowel obstruction (MBO) is a challenging complication of advanced cancer. Several pathophysiologic mechanisms are responsible for the syndrome, including mechanical compression, motility disorders, gastrointestinal secretion accumulation, decreased gastrointestinal absorption, and inflammation. The treatment of related symptoms requires a collaborative approach of surgical, interventional, and medical specialists. The surgical approach proves beneficial in selected patients with operable lesions, life expectancy greater than 2 months, and good performance status. Interventionalists place self-expanding metallic stents as a minimally invasive palliative method either as a definitive treatment or as a bridge to surgery. However, most patients with MBO are not candidates for surgery or stent placement. Medical management with opioids, antispasmodics, anti-emetics, antisecretory agents, and corticosteroids is effective in controlling the symptoms associated with MBO. This article discusses the current understanding of MBO pathophysiology and emphasizes current MBO management concepts; it then reviews surgical, interventional, and medical approaches.     

Pancreatic cancer–Palliative therapy: stenting

Pancreatic cancer remains a common and very lethal malignancy with a median survival of approximately 6 months. Surgical resection offers the only potentially curative approach but many patients (80% or more) are ineligible for this kind of therapy, because of age, comorbidities, or locally advanced or metastatic disease that does not benefit from resection. Thus, for many patients with pancreatic cancer treatment remains palliative and endoscopic therapy to relieve bile duct or gastric outlet obstruction becomes of special importance. Although both surgical and non surgical palliative procedures can relieve biliary and duodenal obstruction particularly endoscopic treatment with plastic prostheses or self expanding metal stents was shown to be not only highly effective but also to be burdened with only few complications. The present article summarizes the palliative endoscopic treatment in patients with non resectable pancreatic cancer.     

胰腺癌:姑息性支架术治疗

Pancreatic cancer remains a common and very lethal malignancy with a median survival of approximately 6 months. Surgical resection offers the only potentially curative approach but many patients （80% or more） are ineligible for this kind of therapy, because of age, comorbidities, or locally advanced or metastatic disease that does not benefit from resection. Thus, for many patients with pancreatic cancer treatment remains palliative and endoscopic therapy to relieve bile duct or gastric outlet obstruction becomes of special importance. Although both surgical and non surgical palliative procedures can relieve biliary and duodenal obstruction particularly endoscopic treatment with plastic prostheses or self expanding metal stents was shown to be not only highly effective but also to be burdened with only few complications. The present article summarizes the palliative endoscopic treatment in patients with non resectable pancreatic cancer.     

Wallflex duodenal stenting for gastric outlet obstruction caused by inoperable advanced gastric cancer

INTRODUCTION: Wallflex duodenal stent (WDS) placement for gastric outlet obstruction caused by malignant disease has been covered by health insurance in Japan since April 2010. We have placed five-WDS for three gastric outlet obstructions caused by inoperable advanced gastric cancer. CASE 1: A 67-year-old male diagnosed as having Stage IV gastric cancer with liver, lung, and lymph node metastases underwent a WDS placement during first-line chemotherapy. He was able to consume a soft diet orally for about five months thereafter. He underwent a WDS replacement for stent obstruction by tumor ingrowth and finally died due to the primary tumor 11 months after the first visit. CASE 2: A 63-year-old male diagnosed as having Stage IV gastric cancer with liver and lymph node metastases underwent a WDS placement during the first-line chemotherapy. He was able to consume a soft diet orally for about three months thereafter. He died due to the primary tumor six months after the first visit. CASE 3: A 72-year-old male diagnosed as having Stage IV gastric cancer with liver and lymph node metastases underwent a WDS placement during the first-line chemotherapy. He was able to consume a soft diet orally for about four months and subsequently received the fourth-line chemotherapy. He underwent a WDS replacement for stent obstruction by tumor ingrowth and finally died due to the primary tumor nine months after the first visit. CONCLUSIONS: WDS stent placements for gastric outlet obstruction caused by inoperable advanced gastric cancer were performed safely and enabled the consumption of a soft diet orally for at least three months. This approach is expected to be a safe and effective treatment option.     

经内镜胆道金属支架引流术治疗恶性胆道梗阻的价值

目的回顾786例经内镜胆道金属支架引流术,探讨其治疗价值。方法在结合临床、影像学资料及尽可能获得的病理基础上确立恶性胆道梗阻,直接或在经内镜鼻胆管引流术（ENBD）、经内镜塑料内支架引流术（ERBD）过渡引流确定引流效果后行经内镜金属支架引流术（EMBE）,与姑息性手术及ERBD进行对照研究。结果一次操作成功率99.5%,减黄有效率为：满意68.4%,一般27.5%,无效4.1%;其中低位梗阻减黄有效率（满意＋一般）达96.6%,高位梗阻减黄有效率82.4%,支架平均通畅期289天,平均生存期310天,并发症率6.7%,死亡率1.2%。结论在严格掌握适应证的基础上,EMBE是安全有效解除恶性胆道梗阻的方法,对中晚期胆道肿瘤患者基本可替代姑息性胆道手术治疗。     

Covered stents versus uncovered stents for the palliation of malignant extrahepatic biliary obstruction caused by direct tumor invasion: a cohort comparative study

Biliary stenting is a well-established palliative treatment in patients with unresectable malignant biliary strictures. The aim of the present study was to compare clinical outcomes of covered and uncovered stents in patients with malignant extrahepatic biliary obstruction caused by direct tumor invasion. Patients diagnosed with malignant extrahepatic biliary obstruction caused by direct tumor invasion were enrolled in this study. Of these patients, 37 received ePTFE-covered stent placement and were prospectively studied, and 47 received uncovered stent placement and were retrospectively studied. The technical success rate, tumor ingrowth rate, complication rate, stent patency, and patient survival were evaluated for both groups. Stent placement was successful in all cases except one in the covered group due to stent kinking. Tumor ingrowth occurred exclusively in the uncovered group. No significant differences were observed for the complication rate and patient survival between the two groups. Three patients in the covered group experienced stent migration, whereas no patients did in the uncovered group. A significant difference was found regarding stent patency, which was greater for the covered group compared to the uncovered group. The placement of ePTFE-covered stents for the treatment of malignant biliary obstruction caused by direct tumor invasion was a safe and an effective method characterized by greater stent patency.     

Colorectal Stenting for Management of Acute Malignant Bowel Obstruction in Advanced Colorectal Cancer in Iran

Introduction: Enteral stenting is used increasingly as a palliative treatment of gastrointestinal malignant ornon malignant obstructions. This aim of this study was to evaluate the role of endoscopic stent implantation forpalliation of acute colorectal cancer obstruction in critical patients. Methods: This study was performedprospectively with 8 patients suffering clinical manifestations of acute bowel obstruction with severe co-morbiddiseases that caused them to be inoperable. They were treated by semi-elective stent insertion after primaryresuscitation. Gentle dilation of stricture with balloon or buginage was performed under fluoroscopy andcolonoscopy in gastrointestinal ward without complete preparation. Then an uncovered self-expanding metalstent was inserted over guide wire in the location of the tumor. Results: Endoscopic stent implantation could besuccessfully performed in six patients. In early days after stent insertion; general condition of patients graduallyimproved, and symptoms of acute obstruction was relieved. In two of the cases stent was inserted with difficultydue to very tortuous and complex strictures. Complications of stenting in this study were very rare. Displacementof stent after successful insertion was not seen . Of our studied patients, two died after 2 months, one after 4months and three of them after 7-8 months. The cause of death in these patients was advanced metastatic lesionin liver, lung, bone and severe underlying disease such as heart failure. Conclusion: Endoscopic stent implantationseems to be an effective and safe palliative approach for management of emergency conditions of acute colonicobstruction in inoperable patients with advanced colorectal cancer.