Epidural haematoma following anticoagulant treatment in a patient with an indwelling epidural catheter

We report the occurrence of an epidural haematoma after the removal of a lumbar epidural catheter, which had been inserted 2 days previously for surgery to revise a thrombosed femoral–popliteal graft. Pre-operatively the patient received intravenous heparin by infusion, but this was stopped 7 h prior to epidural insertion. Coagulation studies were normal. The epidural catheter insertion was unremarkable. Postoperatively, the patient received a continuous epidural infusion of fentanyl (3 μg.ml⁻¹) and bupivacaine (0.0625%), in addition to systemic anticoagulant therapy with heparin. On the second postoperative day, the patient was noted to have developed bilateral leg weakness (following transfer to another department for Doppler studies). The epidural catheter was inadvertently removed while the patient was anticoagulated and paraparesis developed overnight. After a significant delay, an epidural haematoma was diagnosed and treated by decompressive laminectomy. At operation an epidural haematoma extending posteriorly from T₁₂ to L₃ was removed.     

Accidental pleural puncture by a thoracic epidural catheter

We report the occurrence of an accidental pleural puncture by an epidural catheter that happened during the attempted induction of thoracic epidural anaesthesia using a paramedian approach in an awake patient. The incorrect placement of the catheter was recognised while the patient was undergoing thoracoscopic surgery. The possibility of accidental pleural puncture during attempted thoracic epidural catheter placement by either the paramedian or the midline approach should be borne in mind. A misplaced catheter may injure lung tissue and result in a potentially dangerous intra-operative tension pneumothorax.     

Maintained unilateral analgesia

We describe a case of a patient subjected to what proved to be an epidural puncture with catheter placement resulting in persistent unilateral analgesia. The epidurographic study by contrast medium injection through the catheter showed unilateral distribution of the contrast following the cranio-caudal axis in the anterior epidural space.     

Thoracic epidural analgesia via the lumbar approach using nerve stimulation in a pediatric patient with Down syndrome

This case illustrates the threading of an epidural catheter with electrical stimulation guidance from the lumbar epidural space to the thoracic space in a pediatric patient. A 17-year-old boy with Down syndrome, weighing 48 kg, was scheduled to undergo a laparotomy for duodenal obstruction and gastrostomy tube insertion. Combined general and continuous epidural anesthesia was selected for his anesthetic. Following the induction of general anesthesia and tracheal intubation, a 17G Tuohy needle (Arrow International, Inc., Reading, PA) was inserted into the lumbar space (L3-4) using loss of resistance with air. A 20G styletted epidural catheter was then inserted and threaded cranially. As the catheter was advanced, a low electrical current (1-10mA) was applied to the catheter. Motor response was observed from the lower limb muscles to the upper abdominal muscles as the catheter advanced cranially. After 22 cm of the epidural catheter had been inserted, intercostal muscle movement (T9 - 10) was observed at 3.0 mA. Radiographical imaging later confirmed the catheter tip at T10. The patient awoke without distress and was discharged to the ward with subsequent good pain control from a continuous epidural infusion of bupivacaine 0.1% with 1 microg ml(-1) fentanyl at 4-6 ml(-1).     

Opioid treatment for radiating cancer pain: oral administration vs. epidural techniques

In order to determine the optimal pain treatment for patients with cancer involvement of the brachial or lumbar nerve plexuses, a prospective comparative study was carried out using peroral opioid therapy (SO), epidural opioid by a conventional tunnelled epidural catheter (CE) or an epidural catheter connected to an implanted injection port (Port). Pain relief, measured by a visual analog scale (VAS), was similar and adequate in every group already after the first 24 h. CNS side-effects were less frequent and the Karnofsky performance grades slightly superior in the epidural groups. Occlusion and catheter disconnection complicated the pain therapy of five epidural port patients. Epidural dislocation occurred three times in the conventional epidural group. One local infection in the CE group and two in the Port group were recorded. However, no signs of epidural infection were seen at autopsy. The results suggest that due to a lower incidence of side-effects, epidural catheter techniques are superior to peroral opioid in treating pain in these patients. However, complete pain relief was not achieved in all patients, suggesting neurogenic, non-nociceptive pain components. Both epidural techniques seem suitable for long-term pain therapy. Technical improvements are needed in the epidural catheter and the port. The long-term epidural catheter does not seem to cause any major changes in the histology of the dura mater or the connective tissue of the epidural space.     

Accidental severance of epidural catheter used in a patient with postoperative delirium

A 79-year-old man with an abdominal aortic aneurysm had a lumbar epidural catheter inserted for postoperative pain control of bypass graft surgery with continuous epidural analgesia. Five days after the operation, we noticed that forced traction by the patient with delirium had led to the catheter tip being separated and left behind in his body. The remaining portion of the catheter was detected using a lateral lumbar roentgenogram and CT imaging, and it was later removed surgically. We conclude that it was necessary to change the method of analgesia in this patient, since it was difficult to maintain the epidural catheter.     

Total spinal anaesthesia as a complication of local anaesthetic test-dose administration through an epidural catheter

We describe a case of total spinal anaesthesia, which occurred after a 3-ml lignocaine (20 mg ml(-1)) test dose was administered through an epidural catheter in a 79-year-old patient scheduled for gastrectomy under combined general and epidural anaesthesia. The surgery was postponed, and the patient required admission to the intensive therapy unit. Spinal MRI from the total spinal cord did not reveal any pathology. During the next 24 h the patient recovered and after 11 days was successfully operated on under general anaesthesia. No late complications followed. We presume that during placement, the epidural catheter had migrated to the spinal canal as a result of technical difficulties. Although controversial, we consider that administering a standard test dose of local anaesthetic via an epidural catheter is recommended, especially in high-risk patients and when epidural space identification or catheter placement poses technical difficulties. A test dose of local anaesthetic does not fully prevent complications.     

Cervical epidural analgesia via a thoracic approach using nerve-stimulation guidance in adult patients undergoing total shoulder replacement surgery

BACKGROUND: Continuous cervical epidural anesthesia can provide excellent peri- and post-operative analgesia, although several factors prevent its widespread use. Advancing catheters from thoracic levels to the cervical region may circumvent these barriers, provided they are accurately positioned. We hypothesize that guiding catheters from thoracic to cervical regions using low-current epidural stimulation will have a high success rate and enable excellent analgesia in adults undergoing total shoulder arthroplasty. METHODS: After Institutional Review Board approval, adult patients were studied consecutively. A 17-G Tuohy needle was inserted into the thoracic epidural space using a right paramedian approach with loss of resistance. A 20-G styletted epidural catheter, with an attached nerve stimulator, was primed with saline and a 1-10 mA current was applied as it advanced in a cephalad direction towards the cervical spine. Muscle twitch responses were observed and post-operative X-ray confirmed final placement. After a test dose, an infusion (2-8 ml/h) of ropivacaine 2 mg/ml and morphine 0.05 mg/ml (or equivalent) was initiated. Verbal analog pain scale scores were collected over 72 h. RESULTS: Cervical epidural anesthesia was performed on 10 patients. Average current required to elicit a motor response was 4.8 +/- 2.0mA. Post-operative X-ray of catheter positions confirmed all catheter tips reached the desired region (C4-7). The technical success rate for catheter placement was 100% and excellent pain control was achieved. Catheters were positioned two to the left, four to the right and four to the midline. CONCLUSION: This epidural technique provided highly effective post-operative analgesia in a patient group that traditionally experiences severe post-operative pain and can benefit from early mobilization.     

An epidural abscess due to resistant Staphylococcus aureus following epidural catheterisation

We report a case of abscess formation after epidural analgesia, a rare complication that developed in our patient 13 days after placement of a thoracic epidural catheter for patient controlled analgesia. Culture of the pus grew methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus . Although early diagnosis and rapid management have been reported to yield a satisfactory outcome, the case we describe ended in severe sequelae.     

Inserción intrapleural involuntaria de un catéter epidural en cirugía torácica: ¿está fuera de juego la analgesia regional o existe otra salida?

In thoracic surgery, optimized pain control is crucial to prevent dysfunction in cardiorespiratory mechanics. Epidural anesthesia and paravertebral block are the most popular techniques for analgesia. Unintended intrapleural insertion of an epidural catheter is a rare complication.Our report presents a case of a patient submitted to pulmonary tumor resection by video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery. There was difficulty in epidural insertion related to patient's obesity, but after general anesthesia induction, no additional intravenous analgesia was needed after epidural injection. Surgery required conversion to thoracotomy, with intrapleural identification of epidural catheter. At the end of surgery, surgeons reoriented catheter to paravertebral space, with leak absence confirmation after local anesthetic injection through the catheter. In postoperative period, pain control was efficient, with no complications.It was a successful case that shows that when we find unexpected complications, we can look for alternative solutions to give our patient the best treatment.     

Epidural hematoma after thoracic epidural catheter removal in the absence of risk factors

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this report is to enhance awareness that an epidural hematoma can occur even in patients devoid of risk factors. CASE REPORT: A 69-year-old, 55-kg male was scheduled for video-assisted thoracoscopic resection of bilateral pulmonary metastases and received combined thoracic epidural and general anesthesia. The epidural catheter insertion was unremarkable. All laboratory values were within normal values. No anticoagulation or antiplatelet drugs were administered. The epidural catheter was removed on postoperative day 2. The patient developed signs of an epidural hematoma a few hours later and was treated by decompressive laminectomy. Full neurologic recovery was observed after a 6-month period. CONCLUSION: Catheter removal is a critical period for epidural hematoma formation even if no risk factors are identified. Early recognition and treatment are essential features for good neurologic recovery after an epidural hematoma.     

Subcutaneous effusion resulting from an epidural catheter fragment

The breakage of an epidural catheter within a patient is uncommon,but troublesome, complication of epidural block, and its causeis rarely discovered. In this case report, our aim was to presentan effusion between s.c. tissue and fascia in the lumbar regionbecause of a broken fragment of epidural catheter which wasunnoticed during its removal.     

Tunnelling of caudal epidural catheters in infants

The working conditions in the developing world necessitate the development of many adaptations and improvizations of accepted anaesthetic techniques to improve patient care. Subcutaneous tunnelling of caudally placed epidural catheters is one such improvization to prevent the soiling of the catheter by urine and faeces. This study compares the duration of retention of catheter in a group with tunnelled catheters with an untunnelled group. The absence of a catheter emerging through skin at the site of catheter insertion hastens healing thus prolonging the retention of catheter in the tunnelled group and soiling ceases to be a major problem.     

Advantages of the paramedian approach for lumbar epidural analgesia with catheter technique

Forty-nine patients, scheduled for transurethral resection of the prostate or a bladder neoplasm on 50 occasions, were studied. The patients were randomly allocated to one of the two methods of puncture, midline or paramedian. Technical difficulties and the occurrence of complications were recorded. The extent of sensory and motor blockade was also compared. The paramedian approach was associated with a lower frequency of technical problems compared to the midline approach. Statistically significant differences were demonstrated between the two techniques for the following factors: repeated attempts at needle insertion; difficulty in identification of the epidural space; resistance to introduction of the catheter; resistance to injection through the epidural catheter; and the production of paraesthesiae (nine patients in the midline group compared to only one patient in the paramedian group, p less than 0.01). The catheter entered a vessel at first in two patients in each group. No significant differences were demonstrated between the groups in the extent of sensory and motor blockade. The study supports the view that the paramedian approach has technical advantages over the midline approach for lumbar epidural analgesia with catheter technique.     

Clinically unrecognized intravascular placement of epidural catheter in a child – an argument for the use of radio‐opaque contrast?

An epidural catheter was inserted after induction of anesthesia in a 28.2 kg 9-year-old boy scheduled to undergo bilateral femoral varus derotational osteotomies. There was no gravity free flow of blood down the catheter and there was no blood aspirated with a 2 ml syringe. After a negative test dose of a 4 ml solution of 0.25% levobupivacaine with epinephrine 1 : 200 000, a further 8 ml was administered via the epidural catheter. No significant increase in heart rate was noted. On surgical skin incision the heart rate increased from 94 to 116 b.min(-1) and blood pressure increased from 104/44 to 116/46 mmHg. A further 3 ml 0.25% levobupivacaine with epinephrine and clonidine 2 mug.kg(-1) were administered via the epidural catheter. The operation continued uneventfully although it was noted that the heart rate increased intermittently during the procedure. In view of the unexplained tachycardia and a history of cerebral palsy with the potential for postoperative muscle spasms, it was felt important to have a reliable epidural. To confirm placement, 2 ml of Isovue 300 (Iopamidol) was administered via the epidural catheter. X-ray screening demonstrated intravascular placement and the rapid disappearance of contrast. The catheter was removed and reinserted. Contrast demonstrated good spread in the epidural space. The merits of screening with contrast for epidural catheter placement in children are discussed.     

Epidural analgesia in a patient with an intrathecal catheter and subcutaneous pump to deliver baclofen

Baclofen is used for the treatment of spasticity. Small doses administered intrathecally achieve high cerebrospinal fluid concentrations with reduced side-effects. Pediatric anesthesiologists are often reluctant to consider epidural analgesia in children receiving baclofen via an intrathecal catheter and subcutaneous pump. This reluctance is based on concerns for damaging the intrathecal catheter and introducing infection. In addition, the acute cessation of intrathecal baclofen can precipitate a life-threatening withdrawal state. We report a case of successful epidural analgesia in a patient receiving intrathecal baclofen and discuss the steps we took to minimize the chance of harm with this technique. We conclude that an intrathecal catheter and subcutaneous pump to deliver baclofen should not preclude the use of an epidural catheter for perioperative analgesia.     

Lateral cervical epidural catheter placement using nerve stimulation for continuous unilateral upper extremity analgesia following a failed continuous peripheral nerve block

This case report describes the application of electrical stimulation (Tsui test) to confirm placement of a cervical epidural catheter for postoperative pain management in a patient with a failed brachial plexus block who underwent upper extremity surgery. An epidural catheter was easily advanced under nerve stimulation guidance to the surgical dermatome C4 level without any resistance from the C7-T1 level. Successful analgesia was achieved with a bolus of 2 mg ml(-1) ropivacaine 2 ml and fentanyl 20 microg, followed by a continuous infusion of 2 mg ml(-1) ropivacaine with 2 microg ml(-1) of fentanyl at a rate of 2 ml h(-1). This case reminds the clinician that cervical epidural analgesia may serve as an alternative to a difficult continuous peripheral nerve block. Electrical stimulation may also help to confirm cervical epidural catheter placement at the appropriate dermatome to provide effective analgesia with minimal side-effects.     

Survey of epidural analgesia management in general intensive care units in England

BACKGROUND: The management of epidural analgesia is controversial. Many intensive care unit (ICU) patients may benefit from this form of analgesia but have one or more contraindications to its use. Sepsis, coagulopathy, insertion in a sedated, ventilated patient, and lack of consent are common problems in ICU patients. Little has been published to help guide practice in this area. I wished to establish the current practice of the management of epidural analgesia in general ICUs in England when relative or absolute contraindications occur, in order to determine the current standard of care for placement and use of epidural analgesia in ICU patients. METHODS: A postal questionnaire survey of the management of epidural analgesia in critically ill patients was sent to the named clinical director of all (216) general ICUs in England. RESULTS: Responses were received from 159 (75%) units: 89% of responding units use epidural analgesia but only 51(32%) have a written policy covering its use. Anesthetists or intensivists with an anesthetic background sited all epidural catheters; 68% of units would not site an epidural in a patient with positive blood cultures; but only 52% considered culture negative sepsis (systemic signs of sepsis with no organism isolated) to be a contraindication. Neither lack of consent nor the need for anticoagulation after the catheter had been sited were considered contraindications to inserting an epidural catheter by the majority of respondents. Although 71% of the units would remove an epidural catheter if a patient developed positive blood cultures after it had been sited, the majority of the ICUs did not consider culture negative sepsis and the need for anticoagulation contraindications to maintain a previously sited epidural. CONCLUSIONS: Practice varied considerably with little consensus. Although all the respondents use epidural analgesia in critically ill patients, the indications and contraindications to epidural analgesia remain controversial, and further research is required to help define the role of epidural analgesia in this high-risk group.     

硬膜外预充生理盐水对置管诱发剖宫产术患者硬膜外血管损伤的影响

目的 评价硬膜外预充生理盐水对置管诱发剖宫产术患者硬膜外血管损伤的影响.方法 单胎足月妊娠拟在硬膜外麻醉下行子宫下段剖宫产术的患者150例,ASA分级Ⅰ或Ⅱ级,年龄27～33岁,体重66～75 kg.随机分为3组(n=50),Ⅰ组直接置入硬膜外导管,Ⅱ组和Ⅲ组在硬膜外置管前通过硬膜外针注射0.9%生理盐水或含肾上腺素(1:200 000)的生理盐水5 ml,注射完后保持注射器压缩针栓20 s,使液体充分扩散.记录置入硬膜外导管时硬膜外穿刺针针尾见淡红色血水、硬膜外导管回抽见淡红色血水、硬膜外导管置入血管(从导管回抽出新鲜血液)的发生情况.结果 与Ⅰ组比较,Ⅱ组和Ⅲ组硬膜外穿刺针针尾见淡红色血水的发生率、硬膜外导管回抽见淡红色血水的发生率和硬膜外导管置入血管的发生率均明显降低(P＜0.01);Ⅱ组和Ⅲ组间上述指标差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论硬膜外预充生理盐水5 ml可有效预防置管诱发剖宫产术患者硬膜外血管的损伤.1∶200 000肾上腺素并不能进一步预防置管诱发的硬膜外血管损伤.     

Combined spinal-epidural techniques

The combined spinal-epidural technique has been used increasingly over the last decade. Combined spinal-epidural may achieve rapid onset, profound regional blockade with the facility to modify or prolong the block. A variety of techniques and devices have been proposed. The technique cannot be considered simply as an isolated spinal block followed by an isolated epidural block as combining the techniques may alter each block. This review concentrates on technical and procedural aspects of combined spinal-epidural. Needle-through-needle, separate-needle and combined-needle techniques are described and modifications discussed. Failure rates and causes are reviewed. The problems of performing a spinal block before epidural blockade (potential for unrecognised placement of an epidural catheter, inability to detect paraesthesia during epidural placement, difficulty in testing the epidural, delay in positioning the patient) are described and evaluated. Problems of performing spinal block after epidural blockade (risk of catheter or spinal needle damage) are considered. Mechanisms of modification of spinal blockade by subsequent epidural drug administration are discussed. The review considers choice of technique, needle type, patient positioning and paramedian vs. midline approach. Finally, complications associated with combined spinal-epidural are reviewed.