Burns,biofilm and a new appraisal of burn wound sepsis

Purpose

Following a burn, the wound may become colonized and septic complications may ensue. Many organisms, commonly isolated from burn wounds produce biofilms, which are defined as a collection of organisms on a surface surrounded by a matrix. Biofilms are associated with development of antibiotic resistant organisms and are refractory to the immune system. The presence of biofilm in the burn wound has not been documented.

Methods

A study was undertaken using light and electron microscopy to determine the presence of biofilm in the burn wound. Specific stains were used to detect the presence of micro-organisms and associated carbohydrate, a major constituent of the biofilm matrix. A concurrent microbiological study of the burn wound was also carried out.

Results

Biofilm was detected in ulcerated areas of the burn wound. Bacterial wound invasion with mixed organisms was also commonly detected.

Conclusions

The finding of biofilm in the burn wound has significance in our understanding of burn wound sepsis and supports the evidence for early excision and closure of the burn wound. Due to the recalcitrant nature of biofilm associated sepsis and the difficulty in disrupting biofilm it has implications for the future development of wound care dressings.     

重症急性胰腺炎继发胰腺感染的影响因素分析

目的分析ICU收治的急性重症胰腺炎（severe acute pancreatitis,SAP）保守治疗期间胰腺继发感染的相关影响因素。方法回顾性分析56例ICU收治的急性重症胰腺炎病例,将其分为胰腺继发感染组（30例）和未感染组（26例）并对两组间的相关临床参数进行比较。结果未感染组病人住院死亡率和平均ICU住院时间均明显低于感染组（P〈0．05）,单因素分析提示患者人院时的APACHEII评分、Ranson评分、人ICU时功能不全器官个数、发病距入ICU时间、患者入ICU时的天门冬氨酸氨基转移酶（AST）值、行空肠营养距发病时间及质子泵抑制剂应用时间等与SAP继发胰腺感染相关。多变量Logisitic回归分析显示人ICU时功能不全器官个数和发病距入ICU时间是急性重症胰腺炎继发胰腺感染的独立危险因素（P〈0．05）。结论SAP保守治疗期间继发胰腺感染将显著增加患者的死亡率及住院时间,入ICU时功能不全器官个数和发病距入ICU时间是SAP继发胰腺感染的影响因素。     

疑似或确诊新型冠状病毒肺炎患者相关手术室感染防控建议

根据新型冠状病毒肺炎的流行病学特点,结合国家近期印发的有关该疾病的相关防控方案、指引和感染防控的相关法律、法规,结合手术室工作特点,组织我省手术室护理专家制订首版-该疾病患者手术在手术室过程的感染防控指引,内容包括手术间准备、用物准备、手术人员准备、患者转运、手术中和手术后的管理等各个环节,以预防和控制新型冠状病毒肺炎手术患者在手术过程中造成交叉感染,并供全国各地医院手术室参考。     

Institutional review of the implementation and use of a Clostridium difficile infection bundle and probiotics in adult trauma patients

Background

Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) is a common cause of healthcare associated infections contributing to morbidity and mortality. Our objective was to evaluate the impact of the implementation of a CDI bundle along with probiotic utilization.

骨科病房新型冠状病毒感染防控措施

在新型冠状病毒肺炎防控期间,骨科病房实施了一系列防控措施,包括应急预案建立、人员培训、防护物资储备、患者入院前评估、患者风险分级管理、人员分级防护、环境消毒、医疗废物管理等。现针对感染防控期间面临的挑战与应对措施进行探讨,以期为医疗机构普通病区开展疫情防控提供借鉴。     

The Pre-Hospital Initial Fluid Therapy Estimate in Early Nasty Burns (PHIFTEEN B, 15-B) Guideline applied to a retrospective cohort of Intensive Care Unit patients with major burns

BackgroundAppropriate fluid administration in severe burns is a cornerstone of early burns management. The American Burns Association’s (ABA) recommendation is to administer 2 mL–4 mL × burnt Body Surface Area (BSA) × weight in the first 24 h with half administered in the first eight hours. Unfortunately, the calculations involved are complex and clinicians do not estimate the BSA or weight well, which can lead to errors in the amount of fluid administered.To simplify cognitive load to calculate the fluid resuscitation of early burns, the investigators derived the PHIFTEEN B (15-B) guideline. The 15-B guideline estimates the initial hourly fluid for adults ≥ 50 kg to be:15 mL × BSA (to the nearest 10%)

• •If >100 kg add 200 mL/h.

AimsTo model and determine the accuracy of the 15-B calculated based on the characteristics of a retrospective cohort of patients admitted with ≥ 20% BSA to the Royal Brisbane and Women’s Hospital (RBWH) Intensive Care Unit (ICU).MethodsThe 15-B formula was retrospectively calculated on the prehospital BSA estimate on patients admitted to the RBWH ICU. In addition, the 15-B guideline was modelled against a variety of weights and BSAs. The fluid volume was deemed to be clinically significant if it was greater than 250 mL/h outside the ABA’s recommendations.ResultsThe ICU cohort consisted of 107 patients (63.2% male, median age 37 years), with a median ICU estimated BSA of 40% and a median ICU weight estimation of 80 kg. In 43.9% of the cohort, the magnitude of the proportional difference between prehospital and ICU BSA estimate was greater than 25%.The 15-B formula accurately estimated the hourly fluid for all BSA (20%–100%) and weight combinations (50 kg–140 kg) in a BSA- weight matrix.When prehospital BSA estimate was utilized, 15-B guideline accurately estimated the fluid to be given within clinically significant limits for 97.2% of cases.ConclusionsThe 15-B formula is a simple, easy to calculate guideline which approximates the early fluid estimates in severely burned patients despite inaccuracy in prehospital BSA estimates.     

大鼠烫伤创面感染模型的研制

目的 拟建立稳定的大鼠烫伤创面感染模型,以便于进行相关防治研究.方法 (1)取50只SD大鼠,使用恒温恒压烫伤仪,以底面积4.5 cm2、质量0.5kg的80℃圆柱形烫头垂直接触大鼠脊柱左右两侧皮肤,致伤4、6、8、10、12 s(每种致伤时间10只大鼠,左右侧烫伤时间相同)制作烫伤模型.伤后24 h,观察创面大体情况,记录左侧创面愈合时间,取右侧创面组织行组织学观察,根据结果筛选浅Ⅱ度、深Ⅱ度创面致伤时间.(2)另取36只SD大鼠,按随机数字表法分为浅Ⅱ度组、深Ⅱ度组,每组18只,按照前述方法与选定的致伤时间分别制成浅Ⅱ度、深Ⅱ度烫伤创面.伤后即刻在2组大鼠一侧创面分别接种0.1 mL含1×109、1×107、1×105CFU铜绿假单胞菌标准菌株ATCC 27853的菌液(每种菌量6只大鼠),在另一侧创面涂抹等体积生理盐水作为对照.接种细菌后24 h HE染色观察创面炎症反应情况;接种细菌后1、2、3、5、7、14 d进行革兰染色及生化反应鉴定菌种,检测并计算痂下细菌含量;记录2组大鼠创面愈合时间.对数据行t检验.结果 (1)根据大鼠创面愈合时间及组织学检查结果,筛选出烫伤6 s和8 s分别为浅Ⅱ度和深Ⅱ度创面的致伤时间.(2)浅Ⅱ度组大鼠仅接种1×109CFU细菌的创面有少许炎性细胞浸润;深Ⅱ度组接种1×109、1×107CFU细菌创面均有炎性细胞浸润,前者浸润更明显.(3)创面细菌鉴定结果为铜绿假单胞菌.浅Ⅱ度组创面接种各种菌量后14 d内,痂下细菌含量绝大多数低于1×105CFU/g;深Ⅱ度组创面接种1×109 CFU细菌后14 d内,痂下细菌含量均高于1×105CFU/g并呈持续上升趋势.(4)浅Ⅱ度组接种1×109、1×107、1×105 CFU细菌的创面与生理盐水对照创面愈合时间相近(t值分别为1.26、0.29、1.07,P值均大于0.05);深Ⅱ度组接种1×109CFU细菌创面愈合时间[(22.5±1.0)d]较生理盐水对照创面[(19.4±1.6)d]明显延长(t=2.73,P＜0.05).结论 大鼠深Ⅱ度烫伤创面接种1×109 CFU铜绿假单胞菌标准菌株ATCC 27853,可作为感染创面防治研究的实验模型,该模型稳定、重复性较高.

Abstract：

Objective To reproduce a reliable rat model of burn with infection for the study of prevention and treatment of infected wound. Methods ( 1 ) Electrical burn producing apparatus equipped with constant temperature (80 ℃ ) and pressure (0.5 kg) was used to reproduce burn injury (with area of 4.5 cm2 ) on both sides of the back in 50 SD rats for different duration (4, 6, 8, 10, 12 s) , with 10 rats for each burn duration. On post burn day (PBD) 1, gross condition of wounds was observed with naked eyes.Wounds on the left side were used to observe healing time. The wounds on the right side were used for histological observation to determine the depth of injury, and they were classified into superficial and deep partialthickness injury. (2) Another 36 SD rats were divided into A (inflicted with superficial partial-thickness burn, n = 18) and B (inflicted with deep partial-thickness burn, n = 18) groups according to the random number table. Rats in both groups were treated in accordance with method of preliminary experiment. Immediately after burn, 0. 1 mL of liquid containing 1 × 109, 1 × 107, 1 × 105 CFU Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) ATCC 27853 was respectively inoculated to the wounds on one side (with 6 rats for each amount) ,while the wounds on the other side were treated with the same volume of normal saline as control. Inflammatory reaction of wounds was examined with HE staining on post inoculation day (PID) 1. On PID 1, 2, 3,5, 7, and 14, the number of subeschar bacteria was respectively counted and the bacteria were identified with Gram stain and biochemical reaction. Wound healing time was recorded. Data were processed with t test. Results (1) Burn for 6, 8 s was respectively identified as injury time resulting in superficial or deep partial-thickness injury according to histological observation and wound healing time. (2) Obvious inflammatory cell infiltration was observed in the wounds in B group which were inoculated with 1 × 107 , 1 ×109 CFU PA, and the infiltration was less marked in A group with inoculation of 1 × 109 CFU PA. (3) The bacteria isolated from wounds of A and B groups was identified as PA. The subeschar bacteria count within PID 14 in A group, in which different amount of PA was inoculated, was mostly less than 1 × 105 CFU/g of tissue, while that in B group in which 1 × 109 CFU PA was inoculated was more than 1 × 105 CFU/g of tissue. (4) There was no obvious difference in wound healing time between wounds inoculated with different amount of PA and wounds treated with normal saline in A group ( with t value respectively 1.26, 0. 29, 1.07,P values all above 0.05 ). Wound healing time of wounds in B group, in which 1 × 109 CFU PA was inoculated, was longer as compared with that treated with normal saline [(22.5 + 1.0) d vs. ( 19.4 + 1.6) d, t =2.73, P ＜0. 05]. Conclusions In rat, deep partial-thickness burn wound inoculated with 1 × 109 CFU PA ATCC 27853 is a reliable model with high reproducibility for the study of infection of burn wound.     

The use of topical, un-buffered sodium hypochlorite in the management of burn wound infection

Background

Burn wound infections are a major cause of morbidity and mortality. The bactericidal action of sodium hypochlorite has been known for centuries and it has been in clinical practice for over 70 years. Whereas a buffered sodium hypochlorite solution is not universally available, an un-buffered solution is cheap and easy to prepare.

Aim

The aim of this study was to determine the optimum concentration with regard to safety and efficacy, as well as shelf life of an un-buffered sodium hypochlorite solution for the topical management of burn wound infections.

Methods

Human fibroblasts were exposed to serial dilutions of un-buffered sodium hypochlorite solutions for 30 min and assessed for viability. Isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes were exposed to the same dilutions of un-buffered sodium hypochlorite to establish the minimum bactericidal concentration. The pH, osmolality and electrolyte concentrations were measured. These experiments were repeated with solution stored at room temperature for 6 consecutive days.

Results

24% of fibroblasts were viable after exposure to a 0.025% solution and 98.9% with a 0.003% solution. The MBC for the P. aeruginosa isolates was 0.003%, for S. aureus was 0.006% and for S. pyogenes was 0.0015%. This remained constant for 6 consecutive days. The un-buffered 0.0025% solution has a pH of 10, an osmolality of 168 sodium concentration of 89 mmol/dl and chloride of 84 mmol/dl. This remained stable for 14 days.

Conclusions

An un-buffered solution of sodium hypochlorite with a concentration of 0.006% would be suitable for the topical management of burn wound infections caused by common pathogens. It has a shelf life of at least 6 days.     

浅谈临床防治烧伤感染对策

Prevention and treatment of infection in burn patients involve a wide range of issues. This present article is to introduce only briefly clinical experience focusing on this problem. Among them, satisfactory timely prevention and treatment of burn shock is imperative because it exerts tremendous impact on homeostasis, including especially deterioration of immune functions. Early gastro-intestinal feeding is known to help restore gastro-intestinal circulation after shock, and it is an important avenue to give important nutritional elements like glutamine. It is also very important to excise devitalized tissue, followed by total coverage of all open wounds as early as possible, so that nidus of infection is removed. Rational use of antibiotic, immunological modulation and other measured were also important contributory factors in successfully preventing and treating infection in patients with major burns.     

烧伤感染防治对策

Infection is still the major cause of death in severe burn patients, thus the optimization of antibiotic therapy is an important approach to the annihilation of pathogenic bacte-ria and the decrease of drug-resistance bacteria. It is urgent for burn surgeons to face the selection pressure of antibiotics and the fungous infections following the incorrect use of antibiotics. Re-gardless of its complexity, the treatment of sepsis associated with post-burn bacterial infections should be systematical. Besides the effective anti-shock therapy, early enteral feeding, excision of necrotic tissues, and effective anti-infection treatment, the immunological regulation and the prevention and cure of coagula-tion disorders are necessary in the treatment of severely burned patients.     

In the media: Burns as a method of assault

Aim

The aims of this study were to determine whether a change occurred in the pattern of assault burn injury cases hospitalised to the adult state burns unit, Western Australia, from 2004 to mid-year of 2012, and to compare patient and burn characteristics of adult assault burns with those admitted for unintentional burns.

Methods

Study data were obtained from the Royal Perth Hospital (RPH) Burns Minimum Dataset (BMDS). Aggregated data of unintentional burn admissions during the same period were provided by the BMDS data manager to enable comparisons with assault burn patients.

Results

Assault burn admissions during 2004–2012 accounted for approximately 1% of all adult burn hospitalisations. All assault victims were burned by either thermal or scald agents. A high rate of intubation (24%) and ICU admission (1 in 3 cases) was observed in the fire assault group. The six assault cases undergoing intubation were severe burns, median TBSA 50%, most commonly affecting the face, head and torso, half of these cases had inhalational injuries and also required escharotomies.Comparison of admissions by calendar period showed no statistically significant differences in demographic, burn cause or TBSA%. However, statistically significant differences were found for pre-morbid psychiatric history (15% vs. 58%, p = 0.025) and concomitant fractures or dislocations (46% vs. 2%), p = 0.011).

Conclusions

While the proportion of assault burn admissions per total burn admissions steadily increased from 0.4% in 2009 to 1.5% in mid-2012, this proportion did not exceed that peak level observed of 2.1% for 2004.     

Epidemiology of burns undergoing hospitalization to the National Burns Unit in the Sultanate of Oman: A 25-year review

Aim

The aim of this study was to describe the epidemiology of burns admitted to the National Burns Unit (NBU) in the Sultanate of Oman between 1987 and 2011.

Methods

This is a retrospective review of burn patients admitted to Oman's National Burns Unit (NBU) between 1987 and 2011. The data extracted from the national burn registry. The study describes the admission rate by gender and age groups, occupation, causes of burns, time-to-admission, length of stay and in-hospital mortality of burns between 1987 and 2011.

Results

During a 25-year from 1987 to 2011, there were 3531 burn patients admitted to the National Burns Unit in Oman. The average admission rate to NBU is 7.02 per 100,000 persons per year. On average, males were more likely to be admitted to the NBU than females during the study period (P value < 0.04). Patients aged 1–10 years old constituted 46.6% of caseload during the study period. Flames and scalds caused 88.4% of burns. About half of all patients admitted to the NBU have burns to more than 11% of total body surface area (TBSA). The average stay in hospital was estimated to be 15.3 days per patient. The average in-hospital mortality rate was estimated to be 8.2% per year (range 1.9–22%).

Conclusion

Burns are significant public health issue in the Sultanate of Oman. Children are disproportionately over-represented in this study. Prevention programmes are urgently needed to address this “silent and costly epidemic.”     

The impact of patient demographics and comorbidities upon burns admitted to Tygerberg Hospital Burns Unit,Western Cape,South Africa

In South Africa, burns are a major public health problem responsible for significant morbidity and long-term physical disability. This is, in part, due to a significant proportion of the urban population living in poorly constructed, combustible accommodation. The presence of co-morbid diseases such as diabetes and malignancy in patients with burns has been associated with a poorer outcome. The impact of other diseases such as HIV has yet to be defined.A retrospective data collection study analysed the 221 patients admitted to Tygerberg Hospital Burns Unit in 2011 and the first six months of 2013. Using hospital records, patient demographic data was collected alongside burn agent, ICU admission, complications, and patient outcome in terms of length of stay and mortality.The most common burn agent was hot liquid (45.7%). A significant proportion of patients were subject to intentional attacks (34.3%). Shack fires and flame accounted cumulatively for 85% of total inhalational burns, the highest rates of admission to ICU (85.5%), the highest rate of complications, as well as 92.3% of all total fatalities. HIV+ patients had a higher mortality (13.3% vs 5%, p = 0.22) and a higher complication rate (46.7% vs 30%, p = 0.21). There was no difference in length of stay between the HIV+ and HIV− cohort (12 days vs. 15.5 days, p = 0.916).Burns are a significant yet preventable cause of mortality and morbidity. The rising number of shack fires, responsible for extensive burns and resultant mortality is concerning and indicates urgent attention and action. HIV complicates the recovery from burn and is responsible for an increased rate of in hospital mortality.     

Burns in Sweden: an analysis of 24,538 cases during the period 1987-2004

Burn care is always progressing, but there is little epidemiological information giving a clear picture of the current number of treated burns in Sweden. This study was conducted to provide an update of patients admitted to hospital with burns in Sweden. Data were obtained for all patients who were admitted to hospitals with a primary or secondary diagnosis of burns (ICD-9/10 codes) from 1 January 1987 to 31 December 2004; 24,538 patients were found. Most of the patients were male (69%), giving a male:female ratio of 2.23:1. Children in the age-group 0-4 years old predominated, and accounted for 27% of the study material. The median length of stay was 3 days. Throughout the period 740 patients (3%) died of their burns. Significant reductions in mortality, incidence, and length of stay were seen during the study, which correlates well with other studies. However, most of the reductions were in the younger age-groups. Men accounted for the improved mortality, as female mortality did not change significantly. We think that the improvement in results among patients admitted to hospital after burns is a combination of preventive measures, improved treatment protocols, and an expanding strategy by which burned patients are treated as outpatients.     

也谈严重烧伤感染治疗

Nowadays, it is necessary to emphasize the three basic inseparable elements in the treatment of severe burn infection, which are systemic care, burn wound care, and ra-tional use of antimicrobia/s topically or systematically. Systemic care has been shifted from simple nutritional support to maintai-ning the systemic homeostasis, including balancing immune-in-flammatory response, and protecting organs from dysfunction.Some work focused on regulating systemic immune response in the initial phase and the balance of inflammatory response after occurrence of severe burn infection have been reported. These results at least broaden our thinking to recognize that treatment should not only destroy microbes, but also balance the response of the body. Escharectomy in earlier phase has been a consen-sus. Currently, we turn our vision into how to use "damage con-trol surgery (DCS)" concept in management of severe burn.DCS in burn care includes the evaluation of perioperative situa-tion more accurate to make a more appropriate surgical decision. Meanwhile, an overall strategy should be established to confront the rapidly increasing drug resistance of the pathogens. The re-lease of endotoxin after use of antimicrobials, which has been studied widely, should be explored further.     

2003-2005年积水潭医院烧伤感染常见细菌及耐药性分析

目的 了解笔者单位近期的烧伤感染细菌分布及耐药情况。方法 收集2003年1月-2005年12月从笔者单位492例烧伤住院患者创面分泌物、静脉导管、血液、尿液、粪等标本分离而得的菌株，对其菌种分布特点及耐药性进行分析。结果 送检标本中革兰阴性菌多于革兰阳性菌。革兰阳性菌292株，分离率最高者为金黄色葡萄球菌（16．7％），其中甲氧西林耐药金黄色葡萄球菌在金黄色葡萄球菌中占82．5％；革兰阴性菌372株，分离率较高的分别为铜绿假单胞菌（12．5％）、大肠埃希菌（11．1％）。3年中大肠埃希菌和肺炎克雷伯菌对超广谱β内酰胺酶的耐药率分别为60．8％和42．9％。结论 笔者单位烧伤病区细菌耐药问题严重，仍需不断监测病区菌种变化及药物敏感情况，以有效地控制细菌感染和耐药菌株的播散。     

European Burns Association guidelines for the management of burn mass casualty incidents within a European response plan

BackgroundA European response plan to burn mass casualty incidents has been jointly developed by the European Commission and the European Burn Association. Upon request for assistance by an affected country, the plan outlines a mechanism for coordinated international assistance, aiming to alleviate the burden of care in the affected country and to offer adequate specialized care to all patients who can benefit from it. To that aim, Burn Assessment Teams are deployed to assess and triage patients. Their transportation priority recommendations are used to distribute outnumbering burn casualties to foreign burn centers. Following an appropriate medical evacuation, these casualties receive specialized care in those facilities.MethodsThe European Burns Association’s disaster committee developed medical-organizational guidelines to support this European plan. The experts identified fields of interest, defined questions to be addressed, performed relevant literature searches, and added their expertise in burn disaster preparedness and response. Due to the lack of high-level evidence in the available literature, recommendations and specially designed implementation tools were provided from expert opinion. The European Burns Association officially endorsed the draft recommendations in 2019, and the final full text was approved by the EBA executive committee in 2022.RecommendationsThe resulting 46 recommendations address four fields. Field 1 underlines the need for national preparedness plans and the necessary core items within such plans, including coordination and integration with an international response. Field 2 describes Burn Assessment Teams' roles, composition, training requirements, and reporting goals. Field 3 addresses the goals of specialized in-hospital triage, appropriate severity criteria, and their effects on priorities and triage. Finally, field 4 covers medical evacuations, including their timing and organization, the composition of evacuation teams and their assets, preparation, and the principles of en route care.     

Burns and socioeconomic deprivation: the experience of an adult burns centre

IntroductionBurns incidence, mortality and complication rates have been shown to be directly correlated by race, gender and socioeconomic status. As such, socioeconomic status (SES) has been previously highlighted as a target for burn prevention in the UK and abroad.The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Birmingham (QEHB) is the regional Burns Centre for the Midlands Burn Network, supporting a population of 13.7 millionMethods16-year retrospective review was performed of all acute adult burns assessed by the Burns and Plastics Department, QEHB. The data included patient demographics (age, gender, ethnic origin and postcode), mechanism of injury, total body surface area (TBSA) affected and whether first aid was given. IMD Rank, IMD Scores were obtained from individual postcodes, as well as incidence data per electoral ward.ResultsIn our analyses there were 3369 total acute admissions and acute assessments. 812 patients (24.1%) were in the most deprived decile. 1715 patients (50.9%) live within the 3 most deprived deciles. The deciles with the lowest completion of first aid were the first (524, 70.72%), third (257, 72.39%) and second (351, 72.82%).ConclusionsThis study shows patients from the most deprived areas are over-represented in burns incidence and are less likely to perform first aid. We feel this should be highlighted in burns prevention and education strategies.