Improving Smallholder Farmer Biosecurity in the Mekong Region Through Change Management

Transboundary animal diseases including foot‐and‐mouth disease and haemorrhagic septicaemia remain a major constraint for improving smallholder large ruminant productivity in the Mekong region, producing negative impacts on rural livelihoods and compromising efforts to reduce poverty and food insecurity. The traditional husbandry practices of smallholders largely exclude preventive health measures, increasing risks of disease transmission. Although significant efforts have been made to understand the social aspects of change development in agricultural production, attention to improving the adoption of biosecurity has been limited. This study reviews smallholder biosecurity risk factors identified in the peer‐reviewed literature and from field research observations conducted in Cambodia and Laos during 2006–2013, considering these in the context of a change management perspective aimed at improving adoption of biosecurity measures. Motivation for change, resistance to change, knowledge management, cultural dimensions, systems theory and leadership are discussed. Due to geographical, physical and resource variability, the implementation of biosecurity interventions suitable for smallholders is not a ‘one size fits all’. Smallholders should be educated in biosecurity principles and empowered to make personal decisions rather than adopt prescribed pre‐defined interventions. Biosecurity interventions should be aligned with smallholder farmer motivations, preferably offering clear short‐term risk management benefits that elicit interest from smallholders. Linking biosecurity and disease control with improved livestock productivity provides opportunities for sustainable improvements in livelihoods. Participatory research and extension that improves farmer knowledge and practices offers a pathway to elicit sustainable broad‐scale social change. However, examples of successes need to be communicated both at the ‘evidence‐based level’ to influence regional policy development and at the village or commune level, with ‘champion farmers’ and ‘cross‐visits’ used to lead local change. The adoption of applied change management principles to improving regional biosecurity may assist current efforts to control and eradicate transboundary diseases in the Mekong region.     

Investigation of Foot and Mouth Disease hotspots in northern Lao PDR

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is an endemic transboundary disease in the Mekong region, and FMD records of reports to animal health authorities in Lao PDR between 2009 and 2011 were reviewed. FMD outbreaks occurred in 2 of 3 years in eight districts in three of the eight northern Lao PDR provinces, locations suggested as FMD ‘hotspots’. The relatively higher risk of recurrence of FMD in these districts was likely due to the presence of a dense large ruminant population, extensive animal trading including transboundary movements and ineffective animal movement controls. As an understanding of the epidemiology of FMD in these ‘hotspots’ may offer insights into improved FMD control in the region, a study of an outbreak of FMD occurring in early 2010 following failure to vaccinate was conducted in the endemic ‘hotspot’ area of Paek district in Xiengkhoung province where in early 2009, a major outbreak of FMD in the district had been prevented in two villages by vaccination. The 2010 outbreak included collection of tissue samples 1 week after the onset of FMD that confirmed infection with FMD virus serotype O (Myanmar topotype) in a population of 239 large ruminants, comprising 167 cattle and 72 buffalo. A survey by interview of 30 farmers conducted in July 2010 documented high morbidity in cattle and buffalo (>90%) and identified disease risk factors, including increased trading of animals at the end of the rice harvest, plus several failures of biosecurity. In late 2010 and early 2011, a total of 40 and 72 serum samples were collected from large ruminants prior to and post‐FMD vaccination respectively and tested by LPB‐ELISA. Antibodies were present in the pre‐vaccination samples attributable to previous exposure to FMD virus and significantly rising post‐vaccination titres indicated likely temporary protection against future FMDV infection. It was concluded that to provide sufficient control of FMD in this ‘hotspot’, regular vaccination, particularly prior to the peak risk period in December‐February, plus improved farmer knowledge of disease transmission risk and biosecurity, is required. Although low rural education standards and language barriers because of multiple ethnic groups pose a challenge for the successful delivery of extension programmes in northern Lao PDR, training to improve disease recognition and reporting plus village‐level biosecurity practices is considered important in FMD ‘hotspots’ if sustainable regional initiatives directed at FMD control are to be achieved.     

Assessment of Financial Impact of Foot and Mouth Disease on Smallholder Cattle Farmers in Southern Cambodia

The financial impact of an outbreak of FMD in 2010 on 62 smallholder cattle farmers in four villages in southern Cambodia was investigated by a financial impact survey questionnaire. Financial losses associated with FMD infection were severe with variation depending on whether the animal survived or died or was used for draft. The average post‐FMD loss varied from USD 216.32, a 54% reduction from the pre‐FMD value because of weight loss and treatment costs, to USD 370.54, a 92% reduction from pre‐FMD values if the animal was treated, died and a rental draft replacement was required. Partial budget analysis identified a strongly positive incentive for cattle to be vaccinated biannually for FMD, providing USD 31.48 per animal for each animal owned. However low vaccination rates suggest that farmers are mostly unaware of the need or averse to the practice of vaccinating their cattle for FMD. This may be due to poor understanding of preventative disease strategies such as vaccination, unavailable disposable income for purchase of vaccines, and failure to recognize the full costs that are incurred when the disease occurs. Enhancing smallholder cattle productivity through the introduction of forage growing systems has been suggested as a pathway for alleviating rural poverty in the Mekong region. As our financial analysis identified a net benefit of vaccination for smallholder farmer enterprises in an endemic FMD area in Cambodia, it is considered important that farmer education strategies aimed at improving cattle productivity, also include both access to vaccine and training in preventative disease risk management and biosecurity practices in Cambodia.     

Assessment of Farmer Knowledge of Large Ruminant Health and Production in Developing Village‐Level Biosecurity in Northern Lao PDR

The purpose of this study was to determine baseline knowledge and identify knowledge gaps of farmers on biosecurity, risk of transmission of transboundary diseases and large ruminant health and production in three provinces of northern Laos, Hua Phan (HP), Luang Prabang (LPB) and Xieng Khoung (XK). The survey was conducted in six villages that are project sites for an Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) project, with two villages located in each of the three provinces. A census survey was conducted by interview with all 238 farmers participating in the ACIAR project, using a structured questionnaire. The interviews were conducted in Lao language and took 1–2 h per farmer. The answers were recorded in Lao and the survey data were translated into English and transcribed into Microsoft Excel, and a linear mixed model in the Genstat statistical analysis package was used to compare quantitative traits between the target provinces. The results showed that the prediction mean of farmer knowledge scores on parasitic disorders, infectious disease, reproduction and nutrition management were significantly different between the target provinces. The prediction mean of farmer knowledge scores on infectious disease questions ranged between 5.11 in HP to 8.54 in XK of 24 marks (P < 0.001). The prediction mean of total knowledge scores was 13.48 in LPB and 19.29 in XK of 42 marks (P < 0.001). The results indicate both the need for and scope required to attain improvements in farmer knowledge of large ruminant health and production. It was concluded that a participatory research and extension programme to address village‐level biosecurity and reduce disease risks, plus enhance large ruminant production capabilities of smallholder producers, is a valid and potentially important strategy to address transboundary disease risk and rural poverty in northern Laos.     

Are Village Animal Health Workers Able to Assist in Strengthening Transboundary Animal Disease Control in Cambodia?

A cross‐sectional survey of 445 Village Animal Health Workers (VAHWs) from 19 provinces in Cambodia was undertaken. The aim was to establish their levels of training, farm visit frequency, reasons for visits and disease reporting practices, enabling the strengths and weaknesses of the VAHW system in Cambodia to be determined, in providing both a fee‐based smallholder livestock clinical service and a government partnership in transboundary animal disease (TAD) surveillance and control. The study used ‘guided group interviews’ and identified that VAHWs had good contact with farmers with 61.5% making more than one farm visit daily. However, incomes from services remained low, with 45% VAHWs obtaining between 20 and 40% of their household income from VAHW activities. VAHWs recorded relatively high rates of disease reporting, with 72% claiming they report diseases immediately and 74% undertaking monthly reporting to veterinary authorities. Logistic regression analysis revealed VAHW contact frequency with district and/or provincial officers was associated with more VAHW farm visits, and frequency of VAHW visits to smallholder farms was positively associated with average monthly expenditure on animal medication and equipment. This suggests that increased veterinary extension to VAHWs and access to veterinary equipment, vaccines and drugs may further increase VAHW‐farmer engagement. VAHWs provide an accessible, market‐based, animal health ‘treatment and reporting’ service linked to livestock smallholders across Cambodia. However, for improved TAD prevention and more efficient control of outbreaks, research that assesses provision of an animal health ‘preventive‐based’ business model is urgently needed to reduce both the costs to farmers and the risks to the economy due to foot‐and‐mouth disease and other TADs in Cambodia.     

Perspectives on Australian Animal Health Aid Projects in South‐East Asia

Future food security poses many challenges and with increasing prosperity and demand for meat, the emerging but largely unregulated trade in livestock and their products from developing countries in South‐East Asia and particularly the Mekong region, pose enormous risks of transboundary disease epidemics. However this is a challenge that should be met as substantial improvements in large ruminant production through appropriate knowledge‐based interventions can potentially move the largely rural smallholder populations of Lao PDR and Cambodia from subsistence to a productivity focus, offering a new pathway for poverty alleviation. Large development projects have been implemented in the Mekong region to facilitate this process and research is needed to define problems, identify and test solutions, and then suggest the most appropriate delivery mechanisms for promulgating the interventions that are most sustainable. Animal health aid projects are needed to improve livestock productivity, minimize risk to trade and human health and enhance the capacities of countries where there are significant gaps in the provision of veterinary services. Improving large ruminant production, particularly through forages technology and infectious disease risk management including village‐level biosecurity, provides a potential driver of foot and mouth disease (FMD) control and eventual eradication in the region. A perspective on issues involved in Australian aid projects addressing regional animal health research and development and a checklist of strategies to consider when designing and managing such projects is provided.     

Financial Impact of Foot and Mouth Disease on Large Ruminant Smallholder Farmers in the Greater Mekong Subregion

A retrospective investigation of financial losses incurred by large ruminant smallholder farmers due to outbreaks of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in 2010–12 in northern Laos was conducted in 2012. The aim was to support recommendations on sustainable transboundary animal disease control strategies in the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS). Large ruminant smallholders in the three northern provinces of Luang Prabang (LPB), Xiengkhoung (XK) and Xayyabouli (XYL) were interviewed (n = 310). Financial losses were determined, including direct losses due to mortality (100% of pre‐FMD sale value) and morbidity (difference between the expected sale price pre‐FMD and 1 month following onset of FMD), and indirect losses due to costs of treatments. The losses due to FMD per household varied between provinces (P < 0.001) and were USD 1124, USD 862 and USD 381 in LPB, XK and XYL, respectively, being 60, 40 and 16% of annual household income. Comparison of the costs of FMD with annual household income from sales of large ruminants indicated losses of 213, 181 and 60% of the income in LPB, XK and XYL, respectively. The variation in losses between provinces was due to differences in levels of morbidity with highest in LPB, treatment methods with antibiotic use common in LPB, age of animals sold and sale prices with higher prices in XK. Partial budget analysis of biannual FMD vaccination indicated an average net benefit of USD 22 and USD 33 for cattle and buffalo, respectively. However, vaccination alone is unlikely to control FMD in the region. Promotion of multiple large ruminant health and production intervention programmes to stimulate interest in biosecurity in addition to vaccination is recommended, providing a more sustainable pathway for poverty reduction through the current expansion of livestock investments in the GMS.     

Household Financial Status and Gender Perspectives in Determining the Financial Impact of Foot and Mouth Disease in Lao PDR

The socioeconomic impacts of foot and mouth disease (FMD) during 2011–12 outbreaks on large ruminant smallholders in Laos were investigated, including examination of data on gender, household financial status and farmer husbandry practices. A mix of participatory tools and survey questionnaires at the village and household level, respectively, were conducted, involving individual farmer interviews (n = 124) and group meetings with village elders to establish criteria for classification of household financial status as being ‘poor, medium or well off’ according to rice sufficiency, assets and household incomes. FMD‐attributable financial losses were determined by inclusion of losses due to: mortality, morbidity and costs of treatments. The estimated mean financial losses due to FMD were USD 436 (±92) in the ‘poor’ and USD 949 (±76) in the ‘well off’ household categories (P < 0.001), being 128% and 49% of income from the sale of large ruminants, respectively. Variation in financial losses reflected differences in morbidity, farmer husbandry practices including frequency of observation of animals and thus recognition of FMD and choice of treatments. Of concern were adverse financial impacts of treatment especially where antibiotics were used; delays in reporting of FMD cases after observation of signs (mean of 2 days); admission that 10% of farmers had sold FMD‐affected livestock; and that 22% of respondents claimed their large ruminants were cared for by females. The findings confirm that FMD has the most severe financial impact on poorer households and that females have a significant role in large ruminant production. It is recommended that livestock extension activities promote the benefits of prevention rather than treatment for FMD and encourage participation of women in biosecurity and disease risk management interventions including rapid reporting and regulatory compliance, particularly with animal movement controls and other biosecurity practices that reduce the negative impacts of FMD on regional food security and poverty reduction in rural communities.     

Improving Village Animal Health Worker participation in national disease surveillance systems: A case study from Cambodia

Para‐veterinary systems have arisen in numerous developing countries to address the low capacity of national veterinary services in meeting livestock health demands of mainly smallholder farmers. In Cambodia, the village animal health worker (VAHW) system was established in the early 1990s, involving short training programmes to equip VAHWs to provide basic animal health services for smallholder farmers, particularly the vaccination of cattle for haemorrhagic septicaemia (HS). However, there are increasing expectations that VAHWs provide village level disease surveillance information to the national veterinary services, despite their low‐level disease diagnostic skills. To identify opportunities to improve the disease reporting system in Cambodia, a closed‐ended cross‐sectional study of VAHWs (n = 80) from two provinces was conducted in 2015, examining their contact frequency with district and provincial animal health authorities. Ordinal logistic regression was used to determine factors associated with increased frequency of VAHW contact with the district animal health authorities responsible for national disease reporting. Positive associations between income generated from VAHW activities (p = .01) and the frequency of visiting farmers (p < .0001), with more frequent contacts with district animal health authorities, were identified. High levels of inappropriate use of antibiotics, with almost 90% of VAHW reporting they use antibiotics to treat FMD‐affected animals, were reported. Although further research to increase the rates of reporting at the smallholder farmer and VAHW levels is required, increased emphasis on complying with the World Organisation for Animal Health's competency guidelines for veterinary paraprofessionals may be required if they are expected to contribute to national animal disease surveillance systems.     

Financial Impacts of Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease at Village and National Levels in Lao PDR

To assist policies on Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease (FMD) control in Laos and the Mekong region, the financial impact of recent outbreaks at village and national levels was examined. Village‐level impacts were derived from recent research on financial losses due to FMD per smallholder household and number of households with FMD‐affected livestock in the village. National‐level impacts of FMD were determined from examination of 2011–2013 FMD reported to the Lao Department of Livestock and Fisheries (DLF), with the 2011 epidemic reported separately due to the large number and size of outbreaks of FMD in that year. Estimates of the national financial impact of FMD were based on (i) total FMD financial losses at the village level and (ii) the costs of FMD responses and other related costs at the DLF, provincial and district levels where FMD was reported, but excluding the costs of revenue forgone. A Monte Carlo simulation was utilized to account for likelihood of FMD over‐ and under‐reporting. Foot‐and‐mouth disease was recorded in four provinces of Phonsaly, Bokeo, Xayyabouli and Champasak in three consecutive years from 2011 to 2013. However, the FMD epidemic in 2011 was more widely distributed and involved 414 villages in 14 provinces, with thousands of cases of morbidity in cattle and buffalo and some mortalities. The estimated financial losses due to FMD in 2011 were USD 30 881(±23 176) at the village level and USD 13 512 291 at the national level based on the number of villages with FMD outbreaks reported. However, when the likelihood of FMD under‐reporting was accounted for, the estimated financial losses at the national level could potentially increase to USD 102 094 464 (±52 147 261), being almost 12% of the estimated farm gate value of the national large ruminant herd. These findings confirm that FMD causes substantial financial impacts in villages and to the national economy of Laos, providing justification for sustained investments in FMD control programmes.     

Epidemiology of the Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Serotype O Epidemic of November 2010 to April 2011 in the Republic Of Korea

The largest epidemic of foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) in Korea since the first record in 1911 occurred between November 2010 and April 2011. The outbreak was confirmed in 153 farms, and more than three million animals were destroyed. This study presents the temporal and spatial distribution patterns, epidemiological investigation and the control measures for the 2010/2011 epidemic in Korea. The index case of this 2010/2011 FMD epidemic was reported in a pig‐farming complex with five piggeries in Andong, GyeongBuk Province, on 28 November 2010, and the outbreak lasted 145 days. The largest number of new detection of the infected farms per day was recorded in mid‐January. Epidemiological investigation revealed that the FMD virus had spread from farm to farm through routine movements associated with animal husbandry operations. In contrast to FMD epidemics in other countries in which movement of the infected animals largely contributed to the spread of the disease, human behaviours were major factors in the spread of the FMD virus in the Korean epidemic. The 2010/2011 epidemic was first confirmed in a local small and medium city where share of smallholder producers is higher than that of other provinces. Although Korea had a well‐developed emergent response system with the experience of controlling infection and re‐obtaining FMD‐free status after the previous epidemics, Korea was prompted to revise their contingency plan by tailoring it to its unique livestock environment. Practical contingency plans tailored to Korea for control of FMD can be fully effective when farmers, livestock‐related agencies, veterinary service providers and the general public work together.     

Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Impact on Smallholders ‐ What Do We Know,What Don't We Know and How Can We Find Out More?

Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) endemic regions contain three‐quarters of the world's FMD susceptible livestock and most of the world's poor livestock keepers. Yet FMD impact on smallholders in these regions is poorly understood. Diseases of low mortality can exert a large impact if incidence is high. Modelling and field studies commonly find high FMD incidence in endemic countries. Sero‐surveys typically find a third of young cattle are sero‐positive, however, the proportion of sero‐positive animals that developed disease, and resulting impact, are unknown. The few smallholder FMD impact studies that have been performed assessed different aspects of impact, using different approaches. They find that FMD impact can be high (>10% of annual household income). However, impact is highly variable, being a function of FMD incidence and dependency on activities affected by FMD. FMD restricts investment in productive but less FMD‐resilient farming methods, however, other barriers to efficient production may exist, reducing the benefits of FMD control. Applying control measures is costly and can have wide‐reaching negative impacts; veterinary‐cordon‐fences may damage wildlife populations, and livestock movement restrictions and trade bans damage farmer profits and the wider economy. When control measures are ineffective, farmers, society and wildlife may experience the burden of control without reducing disease burden. Foot‐and‐mouth disease control has benefitted smallholders in South America and elsewhere. Success takes decades of regional cooperation with effective veterinary services and widespread farmer participation. However, both the likelihood of success and the full cost of control measures must be considered. Controlling FMD in smallholder systems is challenging, particularly when movement restrictions are hard to enforce. In parts of Africa this is compounded by endemically infected wildlife and limited vaccine performance. This paper reviews FMD impact on smallholders in endemic countries. Significant evidence gaps exist and guidance on the design of FMD impact studies is provided.     

Limiting the Impacts of Foot and Mouth Disease in Large Ruminants in Northern Lao People’s Democratic Republic by Vaccination: A Case Study

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is the most important global transboundary livestock disease and is endemic in Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) with outbreaks occurring regularly. Lao PDR shares borders with five countries and as a major thoroughfare for transboundary livestock movement, is vulnerable to the social and economic impacts of FMD. The FMD outbreak occurred in January 2009 in the Pek District, located in the north‐eastern Lao PDR province of Xieng Khuang and involved all 111 villages in that district. In March 2009, we conducted a case study on the impacts of FMD in four villages in Pek District. In two villages cattle and buffalo were vaccinated for FMD recently and prior to the outbreak as part of an ongoing research project. In one of these villages, all cattle and buffalo were vaccinated and just over half the large ruminant population was vaccinated in the other village. The other two villages involved in the case study were located nearby but not part of the ongoing research project and no animals had been vaccinated. Data were collected from the four villages by interviewing the village animal health worker in each village using a standard questionnaire. Morbidity rates for the fully vaccinated village were 1% and 7.9% for the partially vaccinated village and were much lower compared with the two adjacent, unvaccinated villages where morbidity rates were 61% and 74.3% respectively. Estimates of the financial losses incurred were USD 1.7–1.9 per cow or buffalo for the fully vaccinated village, USD 6.9–8.1 for the partly vaccinated village and 52.4–70.8 USD in the unvaccinated villages, providing evidence that a large opportunity cost is incurred by failing to vaccinate in areas where the risk of FMD incursions is high.     

Benefit‐Cost Analysis of Foot and Mouth Disease Control in Large Ruminants in Cambodia

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in Cambodia and throughout the Greater Mekong Subregion and causes significant losses to rural smallholders owning the majority of the national large ruminant population. However, due to underreporting, paucity of knowledge of FMD impacts, limited veterinary capacity and deficits of data available for analysis, the quantifiable benefits of a national FMD control programme are unknown. To address this deficit, existing literature and research data from the ‘Best practice health and husbandry of cattle, Cambodia' project conducted between 2007 and 2012, were used to develop a three‐phase analysis framework to: assess the impacts of the recent widespread FMD epizootic in Cambodia in 2010, conduct a value chain analysis of the large ruminant market and estimate the costs and benefits for a national large ruminant biannual FMD vaccination programme. A trader survey conducted in 2010–2011 provided cattle and buffalo value chain information and was matched to village herd structure data to calculate a total large ruminant farm‐gate value of USD 1.271 billion in 2010. Monte Carlo simulation modelling that implemented a 5‐year biannual vaccination programme at a cost of USD 6.3 an animal per year identified a benefit‐cost ratio of 1.40 (95% CI 0.96–2.20) when accounting for recent prices of cattle and buffalo in Cambodia and based on an expected annual incidence of 0.2 (assuming one major epizootic in the 5‐year vaccination programme). Given that the majority of the large ruminants are owned by rural smallholders, and mostly the poor are involved in agricultural employment, the successful implementation of an FMD control programme in Cambodia would be expected to avoid estimated losses of USD 135 million; equivalent to 10.6% of the 2010 farm‐gate value and contributing to important reductions in rural poverty and food insecurity.     

Some Challenges to Progressive Control of Foot and Mouth Disease in Pakistan – Findings of a Pilot Survey

Pakistan is at an initial stage for progressive control of foot and mouth disease (FMD). Understanding the risk factors for introduction, spread and persistence of the infection is important to design an evidence‐based disease control programme. A rapid appraisal method was adopted, and a convenient sample of twenty commercial dairy farmers was interviewed. The following were considered to contribute in secondary transmission of infection: (i) intermediaries and service providers [animal health workers, animal traders and transporters, raw milk collectors, persons who remove skin of dead animals], (ii) places where animals come in close contact [livestock markets, animal fairs, communal grazing pastures, routes in villages where livestock move, watering points, animal transport vehicles], (iii) use of bulls immediately after recovery from FMD infection, (iv) range land/desert livestock production, (v) small holder sheep and goat production, (vi) purchase of replacement stock and fodder from infected locations. This article reveals contacts within and between villages, some of which may act as routes of transmission of FMD. The study suggests the need for zoosanitary education of the livestock keepers.     

Application of Routines that Contribute to On‐farm Biosecurity as Reported by Swedish Livestock Farmers

On‐farm biosecurity is important for preventing the spread of several contagious animal diseases. In this study, biosecurity routines among Swedish farmers with livestock (cattle, pigs, sheep or goats) were examined through questionnaires posted by mail. Moreover, the use of protective clothing among professionals visiting farms, such as animal transporters and veterinarians, were investigated through assessments made by the farmers. Questionnaires were completed, partly or fully, by 518 farmers (overall response rate 34%). Possible associations between biosecurity routines and livestock species, geographic location and herd size were analysed. Large variations in biosecurity routines were found, both within and between groups, and some farms appeared to have a relatively high level of biosecurity. However, <40% of the farmers reported that they provide protective clothing for visitors, and 50% of farmers buying live animals introduced these directly into the herd without prior isolation. In general, a higher level of biosecurity was reported by farmers with herds with only pigs, when compared to farmers with cattle, sheep/goats or mixed species. A higher level of biosecurity was also reported by larger farms compared to hobby farms. Inconsistent biosecurity routines were reported, which was interpreted as a lack of knowledge of how different infections can spread and how this can be prevented. Furthermore, some replies indicated that the farmers perceived the risk of introduction of disease as low. According to the farmers’ assessments, the use of protective clothing among professionals visiting farms varied considerably, both among different professions and within the same profession. On average, veterinarians and artificial insemination (AI) technicians got high scores in this assessment, while salesmen, repairmen and animal transporters were reported to seldom use protective clothing. Based on the findings, there is room for improvement of on‐farm biosecurity. There is also a need to further investigate the motivators and constraints for altered routines among both Swedish livestock farmers and professionals visiting farms.     

Incidence and Distribution of Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease in Asia,Africa and South America; Combining Expert Opinion,Official Disease Information and Livestock Populations to Assist Risk Assessment

Risk assessment procedures frequently require quantitative data on the prevalence of the disease in question. Although most countries are members of the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), the importance attached to foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) reporting or surveillance for infection varies enormously between infected countries. There is a general consensus that FMD outbreaks in endemic countries are greatly under‐reported, to a degree related either to the economic or the political development level of the country. This exploratory study was first undertaken by FAO, but thereafter extended and reviewed by the working group on FMD risk co‐ordinated by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). The paper attempts to overcome the lack of reporting through using expert opinion to extrapolate incidence indices from countries considered to have ‘representative’ levels of FMD. These were combined with livestock density distributions to provide maps of prevalence indices, which were found to be highest in China (pigs), India (cattle), the Near East (small ruminants) and the Sahel (small ruminants and cattle). Similar patterns were found when weighted expert rankings of a range of additional ranked disease parameters were also produced, and then combined with susceptible animal densities to produce a weighted multi‐species density. Results suggest that the methods can provide useful information at both national and sub‐national resolution, even for countries for which quantitative FMD data is currently unavailable: two of the regions identified provide little or no data on a regular basis to the OIE and therefore may be overlooked if the level of officially reported FMD is only used. As the estimated prevalences are based on recent disease history and expert opinion, they are most likely to be inaccurate where FMD incursions are infrequent as a result of the preventive measures and geographical and trade isolation. This study, therefore, highlights the need for specific detailed country risk assessments where livestock trade is under consideration. Validating the approach including ground truthing, will require collaboration between a number of agencies and institutions, in critical countries, particularly those with high disease burdens that share borders or trade livestock with currently FMD‐free nations.     

Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease in Tanzania from 2001 to 2006

Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in Tanzania, with outbreaks occurring almost each year in different parts of the country. There is now a strong political desire to control animal diseases as part of national poverty alleviation strategies. However, FMD control requires improving the current knowledge on the disease dynamics and factors related to FMD occurrence so control measures can be implemented more efficiently. The objectives of this study were to describe the FMD dynamics in Tanzania from 2001 to 2006 and investigate the spatiotemporal patterns of transmission. Extraction maps, the space‐time K‐function and space‐time permutation models based on scan statistics were calculated for each year to evaluate the spatial distribution, the spatiotemporal interaction and the spatiotemporal clustering of FMD‐affected villages. From 2001 to 2006, 878 FMD outbreaks were reported in 605 different villages of 5815 populated places included in the database. The spatial distribution of FMD outbreaks was concentrated along the Tanzania‐Kenya, Tanzania‐Zambia borders, and the Kagera basin bordering Uganda, Rwanda and Tanzania. The spatiotemporal interaction among FMD‐affected villages was statistically significant (P ≤ 0.01) and 12 local spatiotemporal clusters were detected; however, the extent and intensity varied across the study period. Dividing the country in zones according to their epidemiological status will allow improving the control of FMD and delimiting potential FMD‐free areas.     

The Socioeconomic Impacts of Clinically Diagnosed Haemorrhagic Septicaemia on Smallholder Large Ruminant Farmers in Cambodia

Haemorrhagic septicaemia (HS) is an acute fatal infectious disease of mainly cattle and buffalo and outbreaks occur commonly in Cambodia. Disease outbreak reports were examined to select five villages from three provinces for a retrospective investigation of HS epidemiology and socioeconomic impact on smallholders, with an aim of identifying potential benefits from improving disease prevention through biosecurity and vaccination. The Village Animal Health Worker (VAHW) or Chief in each village and 66 affected smallholders were surveyed. At the village level, 24% of all households were affected with an estimated mean village herd morbidity of 10.1% and mortality of 28.8%. Affected farmers reported HS disease morbidity and mortality at 42.7% and 63.6% respectively. Buffalo had a higher morbidity (OR = 2.3; P = 0.003) and mortality (OR = 6.9; P < 0.001) compared with cattle, and unvaccinated large ruminants a higher morbidity (OR = 2.9; P = 0.001). The financial impact varied depending on whether the animal survived, provision of treatment, draught replacement and lost secondary income. The mean cost per affected household was USD 952.50 based on ownership of five large ruminants. The impact per affected animal was USD 375.00, reducing the pre‐disease value by 66.1%. A partial budget revealed an overwhelming incentive for farmers to practice biannual vaccination, with a net benefit of USD 951.58 per household based on an annual disease incidence rate of 1. Sensitivity analysis showed that a net benefit of USD 32.42 remained based on an outbreak every 20 years. This study indicates HS can cause a catastrophic financial shock to smallholders and remains a critical constraint to improving large ruminant productivity and profitability. Addressing HS disease control requires a focus on improving smallholder farmer knowledge of biosecurity and vaccination and should be priority to stakeholders interested in addressing regional food insecurity and poverty reduction.