Quantitative Assessment of Mechanical Allodynia and Central Sensitization in Endodontic Patients

IntroductionPatients seeking endodontic treatment commonly present with reduced mechanical pain thresholds (ie, mechanical allodynia [MA]) in the offending teeth. In patients with moderate to severe pain, MA may manifest in the teeth contralateral to the offending teeth because of the onset of central sensitization (CS). We hypothesize that there are quantitative differences in MA and CS in patients with different pulp and periradicular diagnoses.MethodsPatients (n = 70) receiving endodontic treatment in the graduate endodontic clinic at the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio and healthy volunteers (n = 10) were included in this cross-sectional study. The mechanical pain threshold from molar teeth was measured by a digital bite force transducer on the offending tooth (ipsilateral) and the contralateral tooth. Ipsi- and contralateral MA among different endodontic diagnoses were analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis with Dunn post hoc test and the Student t test for differences between sexes. Multivariate regression models analyzed predictors for MA and CS.ResultsPeriradicular diagnoses of asymptomatic apical periodontitis, symptomatic apical periodontitis, and chronic apical abscess cases were significantly associated with MA. CS, seen as contralateral MA, was only detected in pulpal diagnosis of symptomatic irreversible pulpitis, previously initiated treatment, symptomatic apical periodontitis, and chronic apical abscess. Females experienced significantly lower pain thresholds than males on both sides. MA and CS were significantly correlated in both sexes. The preoperative pain level and duration were significant predictors for MA and CS only in female patients. Lastly, age was a significant predictor for MA in females.ConclusionsThe magnitude of MA and CS varied with different endodontic diagnoses, with CS being correlated with increases in MA. Only in female patients were age, preoperative pain duration, and intensity significant predictors for the development of MA and CS.     

Postoperative Pain Management with Oral Methylprednisolone in Symptomatic Patients with a Pulpal Diagnosis of Necrosis: A Prospective Randomized,Double-blind Study

Introduction

The purpose of this prospective randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study was to evaluate postoperative pain by using an oral dose regimen of methylprednisolone in symptomatic patients with pulpal necrosis and symptomatic apical periodontitis, a periapical radiolucency, and experiencing preoperative moderate to severe pain.

Postoperative pain and associated factors in adolescent patients undergoing two‐visit root canal therapy

This prospective study investigated the frequency and intensity of postoperative pain and identified associated factors in adolescents undergoing two‐visit root canal therapy. Sixty‐four patients aged 11 to 18 years old presenting with molars with pulp necrosis were assigned consecutively to two visits (plus an interappointment dressing using calcium‐hydroxide paste). Pain intensity was recorded on a visual analogue scale (VAS) of 0–5. Data were analysed using multivariate logistic regression. The frequency of postoperative pain was 32.8% (21/64), with intensities of VAS 1 and VAS 2 in 81%, VAS 3 in 14.3% and VAS 4 in 4.7% of the 21 cases in which it was experienced. Spontaneous preoperative pain (odds ratio (OR) = 6.60; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.61–26.97; P = 0.009) and absence of apical perodontitis (OR = 5.65; 95% CI = 1.34–23.87; P = 0.01) were associated with postoperative pain. The frequency of postoperative pain was high, but the intensity, in general, was low, including flare‐ups. The presence of spontaneous preoperative pain and absence of apical periodontitis increase the probability of suffering from postoperative pain.     

Severe Pain after Endodontic Surgery: An Analysis of Incidence and Risk Factors

IntroductionThe aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and characteristics of postoperative pain after endodontic microsurgery and to identify potential predictors for severe pain.MethodsOne hundred seventy-three patients who underwent endodontic microsurgery at a private practice were included in the study. The patients were asked to fill out a questionnaire to assess their postoperative pain levels for 5 days after surgery. The questionnaires were analyzed to record the changes in pain levels over time. The presence and size of preoperative lesions and bone thickness were determined on preoperative cone-beam computed tomographic scans. Statistical analyses were performed to identify predictors for developing severe pain after surgery. A binary logistic regression model was established to predict the occurrence of severe pain.ResultsSevere pain was most prevalent on day 1 (17.3%) and gradually decreased until a small increase on day 5. The average pain level also peaked on day 1 postoperatively and gradually decreased afterward. No significant difference was observed between patients who reported severe pain and those who did not report severe pain regarding tooth position (anterior vs posterior), lesion size, and presence of fenestration. However, sex, age, and bone thickness were all significant predictors of severe postoperative pain, with odds ratios of 2.8, 0.96, and 1.41, respectively.ConclusionsSevere pain was reported only in a small number of patients after endodontic microsurgery. Younger patients, females, and patients with thicker bone covering the apex are significantly more likely to develop severe pain.     

Primary dysmenorrhea is potentially predictive for initial orthodontic pain in female patients

Objective: To investigate the relationship between primary dysmenorrhea (PD) and orthodontic pain in female patients, and to test the hypothesis that the intensity and duration of orthodontic pain could be roughly predicted by severity of PD.Materials and Methods:One hundred twenty college females were enrolled and put into one of three groups—mild (Mi), moderate (Mo), or severe (S)—according to level of menstrual pain. Intensity of the orthodontic pain was measured by visual analog scale (VAS) on days 1, 2, 4, 7, 14, and 28 after archwire placement.Results:As the intensity of orthodontic pain declined with time, the three groups demonstrated different changes during the initial week. Mi had the lowest VAS scores, whereas S possessed the highest scores. In contrast, Mo stayed in between. Significantly positive correlations were found between the severity of PD and the intensity of orthodontic pain at each time point within the first 2 weeks. In addition, though the majority of subjects reported disappearance of pain by the end of the second week in both Mi and Mo, a large proportion of females still perceived pain in S.Conclusion:Females with higher levels of menstrual pain tended to perceive orthodontic pain with higher intensity and more prolonged duration. Thus, PD could potentially serve as a reference to predict orthodontic pain in clinical settings.     

Role of psychosocial factors on treatment outcome of temporomandibular disorders

Objectives: The aim of this randomized controlled study was to investigate the effect of depressive and non-specific physical symptoms on treatment outcome of temporomandibular disorders (TMD).

Material and methods: Eighty TMD patients were randomly assigned to splint group (n?=?39) and control group (n?=?41). The patients were classified in terms of depressive and non-specific physical symptoms as normal, moderate or severe using Research Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders Axis II protocol. The effect of depressive and non-specific physical symptoms on the intensity of facial pain, as measured with visual analogue scale (VAS) was estimated with linear mixed models. The patients’ subjective estimates of the effects of treatment and TMD symptom severity were inquired at 1-year follow-up.

Results: At baseline and during the follow-up there were no significant differences in VAS scores between patients in different Axis II subscales. According to the mixed linear regression, depressiveness or nonspecific physical symptoms separately were not significantly associated with the VAS during the study. The association of VAS with depressive (p?=?.073) and nonspecific physical symptoms (p?=?.088) approximated statistical significance. Patients with moderate or severe nonspecific physical symptoms (with pain items) at baseline had more frequently moderate, severe or intolerable TMD symptoms after the treatment compared to those who were classified in normal subgroup.

Conclusions: The present study gave some indication of a possible negative effect of depressive and nonspecific physical symptoms (with pain items) on TMD treatment response. However, the results should be regarded as preliminary, and further studies with larger sample size are needed to confirm the results.     

Effectiveness of Intracanal Cryotherapy in Root Canal Therapy: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials

IntroductionThe effectiveness of intracanal cryotherapy for reducing postoperative pain is unclear. The objective of this systematic review was to evaluate the effect of intracanal cryotherapy on postoperative pain after root canal therapy in patients with pulpal or periradicular pathosis.MethodsWe searched PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and the Cochrane Library as well as the top 3 endodontic journals for relevant articles. We included randomized controlled trials that included adults. Our main outcome was postoperative pain intensity measured with a validated scale. We assessed the risk of bias using the Cochrane criteria and the quality of the included studies using Grading of Recommendation Assessment, Development, and Evaluation. We used a random-effects model for meta-analysis.ResultsEight studies involving 810 patients were included. The overall risk of bias was moderate. Seven of 8 studies used a visual analog scale to measure pain intensity. Compared with controls, intracanal cryotherapy significantly reduced postoperative pain at 6 (mean difference = −1.37; 95% confidence interval [CI], −0.61 to −2.14; P < .05; I² = 76%; moderate-quality evidence) and 24 hours after the procedure (mean difference = −1.43; 95% confidence interval, −0.70 to −2.15; P < .05; I² = 89%; moderate-quality evidence). There was no significant effect on pain at 48 and 72 hours and 7 days after the procedure.ConclusionsModerate-quality evidence suggests that intracanal cryotherapy (ie, using cold saline irrigation as a final irrigant) significantly reduces the intensity of pain at 6 and 24 hours after root canal therapy. Future clinical trials assessing the effectiveness of intracanal cryotherapy are advocated.     

Mechanical Allodynia in Healthy Teeth Adjacent and Contralateral to Endodontically Diseased Teeth: A Clinical Study

IntroductionThe aims of this study were to examine whether teeth adjacent and contralateral to endodontically diseased teeth showed co-occurring mechanical allodynia and to determine whether demographic and clinical variables were involved in such associations.MethodsPatients with irreversibly inflamed or necrotic permanent first molars or second premolars were examined. From the 348 eligible patients (160 men and 188 women; mean age ± standard deviation = 30.4 ± 10.0 years), data on age, sex, health status, current presence of pain, tooth type, dental arc, and pulpal diagnosis were collected. Percussion testing was applied to all posterior teeth, and the degrees of pain were recorded using a 4-point verbal scale as follows: none to slight (coded as 0) and moderate to severe (coded as 1). Following association rule mining (with minimum support and confidence levels of 0.1), univariate and multiple logistic regression analyses were performed at various stringency levels (α = 0.05).ResultsThe number of painful associations was greater ipsilaterally than contralaterally and distally than mesially and increased with the severity of percussion pain in the diseased tooth. Successful regression models were established for the ipsilateral (between the diseased tooth and adjacent teeth; current pain: odds ratio = 3.37; 95% confidence interval, 1.94–5.83) and contralateral (between the diseased tooth and the tooth distal to the contralateral symmetrical tooth; dental arc: odds ratio = 2.40; 95% confidence interval, 1.21–4.76) sides (P < .05).ConclusionsHealthy teeth adjacent and contralateral to symptomatic diseased teeth exhibited percussion sensitivity. Patients' current pain and dental arc, respectively, were involved in such painful associations.     

Effect of Diclofenac Potassium Premedication on Postendodontic Pain in Mandibular Molars with Symptomatic Irreversible Pulpitis: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Double-Blind Trial

IntroductionThe aim of this prospective, randomized, double-blind clinical trial was to evaluate the effect of a preoperative, single, oral dose of diclofenac potassium (DFK) on postoperative pain and rescue analgesic intake in patients with symptomatic irreversible pulpitis in mandibular molars treated in 1 visit.MethodsSeventy emergency patients with moderate to severe preoperative pain randomly received either 50 mg DFK or placebo tablets 1 hour before starting endodontic treatment (n = 35 per group). Patients recorded their pain level 6, 12, 24, and 48 hours after treatment on a 170-mm Heft-Parker visual analog scale. The incidence of rescue analgesic intake was also recorded. Outcome data were statistically analyzed using Mann-Whitney U, Friedman, Wilcoxon signed rank, and chi-square tests. Binary logistic regression assessed the association of predisposing factors with postoperative pain. The significance level (α) was set at 0.05.ResultsOf the 70 patients, 68 were analyzed (n = 34 per group). Both groups had similar baseline characteristics (P > .05). DFK showed significantly less pain incidence and intensity than the placebo at 48 hours only (P < .05). A significant decrease occurred from 24 to 48 hours with DFK (P < .05), which was not recorded with the placebo (P > .05). No difference in the incidence of rescue analgesic intake was reported between groups (P > .05). Food intake timing, sex, and rescue analgesic intake were associated with postoperative pain (P < .05).ConclusionsPremedication by a single, oral dose of 50 mg DFK could be effective in reducing postendodontic pain at 48 hours after 1-visit endodontic treatment in mandibular molars with symptomatic irreversible pulpitis.     

Efficacy of Ibuprofen and ibuprofen/acetaminophen on postoperative pain in symptomatic patients with a pulpal diagnosis of necrosis

Introduction

The purpose of this prospective, randomized, double-blind study was to determine ibuprofen versus ibuprofen/acetaminophen use for postoperative endodontic pain in symptomatic patients with a pulpal diagnosis of necrosis and an associated periapical radiolucency who were experiencing moderate to severe preoperative pain. We also recorded escape medication use.

Methods

Seventy-one adult patients presenting for emergency endodontic treatment with a symptomatic maxillary or mandibular tooth with a pulpal diagnosis of necrosis, periapical radiolucent area, and moderate to severe pain participated in this study. The patients were randomly divided into 2 groups by random assignment and numeric coding. An emergency debridement of the tooth was completed with hand and rotary instrumentation. At the end of the appointment, the patients randomly received capsules of either 600 mg ibuprofen or 600 mg ibuprofen combined with 1000 mg acetaminophen (blinded to both operator and patient). Patients also received a 6-day diary to be completed after anesthesia wore off and every morning for 5 days. Patients were asked to record pain, symptoms, and the number of capsules taken. Patients received escape medication (Vicodin) if the study medication did not control their pain. Postoperative data were analyzed by randomization test and step-down Bonferroni method of Holm.

Results and Conclusions

There were decreases in pain levels and analgesic use over time for the ibuprofen and ibuprofen/acetaminophen groups. There was no statistically significant difference between the 2 groups for analgesic use or escape medication use. Approximately 20% of patients in both groups required escape medication to control pain.     

Maintaining Apical Patency Does Not Increase Postoperative Pain in Molars with Necrotic Pulp and Apical Periodontitis: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Introduction

This prospective, single-center, single-blind, randomized controlled trial aimed to evaluate whether maintaining apical patency (AP) during endodontic treatment increases postoperative pain in molar teeth with necrotic pulp and apical periodontitis.

Pain and morbidity after non-surgical and surgical treatment of peri-implantitis

Objective: Not much information exists on post-treatment pain related to peri-implantitis. The purpose of this study was to evaluate intensity and quality of pain after non-surgical and surgical treatment of peri-implantitis.

Material and methods: A total of 30 patients with a diagnosis of peri-implantitis were included in the study. The patients registered pain using a VAS scale after non-surgical and surgical treatment of peri-implantitis. The data were registered for one week after each treatment. The patients also recorded quality of pain and if analgesics were taken. Factors included in the study were number of implants, severity of peri-implantitis (millimetre bone loss at most severely affected implant), implant localization, smoking and gender.

Results: Statistically significant difference in intensity of pain was found between day zero and day one for both non-surgical and surgical treatment of peri-implantitis (p?Conclusion: Levels of pain are found to be low to moderate for most patients after treatment of peri-implantitis. The pain was most pronounced on the first two days post-treatment. Throbbing/soreness and numbness were the most frequently reported quality of pain.     

Dental pain and oral health-related quality of life in individuals with severe dental anxiety

Objectives: To analyze the prevalence and level of dental pain among adult individuals with severe dental anxiety (DA), and the association between dental pain and oral health-related quality of life (OHRQoL).

Methods: The study was based on 170 adult individuals with DA referred to a specialized DA clinic. All patients answered a questionnaire including questions on DA (DAS, DFS), OHRQoL (OIDP) and dental pain. An adapted clinical examination and a panoramic radiograph revealed the present oral status.

Results: The prevalence of dental pain was high (77.6%) and among those reporting pain the intensity was high (49.0–61.0 on a VAS). One or more problems during the last 6 months with the mouth or teeth affecting the individual’s daily activities were reported in 85.3% of the participants. Individuals who reported dental pain had lower OHRQoL compared with those who did not report dental pain (p?p?p?=?.008).

Conclusion: This study revealed a high prevalence and a high level of dental pain among adult individuals with severe DA. Having dental pain was associated with poor OHRQoL.     

Intracanal Cryotherapy Reduces Postoperative Pain in Teeth with Symptomatic Apical Periodontitis: A Randomized Multicenter Clinical Trial

Introduction

A prospective, multicentered, randomized clinical trial was designed to assess if controlled irrigation with cold saline could result in less incidence and intensity of postoperative pain in patients presenting with pulp necrosis and symptomatic apical periodontitis.

Do changes in oral health-related quality-of-life,facial pain and temporomandibular disorders correlate after treatment of severe malocclusion?

Introduction. The aim was to evaluate the relationships of changes in facial pain, temporomandibular disorders (TMDs) and oral health-related quality-of-life (OHRQoL) in adults who underwent orthodontic or orthodontic/surgical treatment. Methods. Sixty-four patients (46 women, 18 men, range 18–64 years) with severe malocclusion and functional problems were treated in Oulu University Hospital. Of these, 44 underwent orthodontic-surgical and 20 orthodontic treatment. Data were collected with questionnaires and clinical stomatognathic examinations before and on average 3 years after treatment. The OHRQoL was measured with OHIP-14 (The Oral Health Impact Profile), the intensity of facial pain with the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) and the severity of TMD with the Helkimo’s anamnestic (Ai) and clinical (Di) dysfunction indices. Results. A significant improvement was found in facial pain, signs and symptoms of TMD and OHRQoL after the treatment (p < 0.05). The decrease in VAS was associated with improvement in OHIP-14 severity (r = 0.296, p = 0.019). The correlations between changes in OHIP-14 severity and Ai and Di were not statistically significant. Conclusion. Treatment of severe malocclusion seemed to improve OHRQoL via decreased facial pain. Decreased facial pain was associated especially with improved OHRQoL dimensions of physical pain, physical disability and social disability.     

Effects of Various Cryotherapy Applications on Postoperative Pain in Molar Teeth with Symptomatic Apical Periodontitis: A Preliminary Randomized Prospective Clinical Trial

Introduction

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effects of intracanal, intraoral, and extraoral cryotherapy on postoperative pain in molar teeth with symptomatic apical periodontitis.

Efficacy and Safety of Postoperative Medications in Reducing Pain after Nonsurgical Endodontic Treatment: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-analysis

IntroductionThe purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of postoperative medications in decreasing pain after nonsurgical endodontic treatment using a network meta-analytic approach.MethodsMEDLINE, Embase, CENTRAL, CINAHL, and Scopus were searched (until July 31, 2019). Two reviewers selected eligible randomized controlled trials and extracted and meta-analyzed data to estimate the treatment effects of pain assessed on a 0–100 scale (mean difference [MD]); 95% credible interval [CrI], and surface under the cumulative ranking curve [SUCRA]) at 6–8, 12, 24, and 48 hours postoperatively after the administration of various interventions. The Cochrane risk of bias tool was applied to eligible trials. The overall quality of evidence was assessed using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation approach obtained from the CINeMA Web application (University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland).ResultsEight interventions among 11 studies were identified: nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), NSAIDs + acetaminophen, NSAIDs + benzodiazepines, NSAIDs + opioids, corticosteroids, opioids, acetaminophen, and placebo. Compared with placebo, nonsurgical endodontic treatment pain 6–8 hours postoperatively improved with NSAIDs + acetaminophen (MD = −22; 95% CrI, −38 to −7.2; SUCRA = 73%; moderate confidence) and NSAIDs (MD = −21; 95% CrI, −34 to −7.6; SUCRA = 68%; very low confidence). At 12 and 24 hours, only NSAIDs were effective in decreasing postoperative pain. At 48 hours, no treatment resulted in significant pain reduction. Corticosteroids and opioids did not significantly decrease pain. No major safety concerns were reported.ConclusionsVery low- to moderate-quality evidence suggests that NSAIDs or NSAIDs + acetaminophen administered after nonsurgical endodontic treatment lead to a clinically relevant decrease in postoperative pain for patients with irreversible pulpitis or pulpal necrosis and are the most effective treatments available. Postoperative corticosteroids or opioids did not significantly decrease postoperative pain.     

Kinesio taping use to reduce pain and edema after third molar extraction surgery: A randomized controlled split-mouth study

ObjectiveEvaluating Kinesio Taping (KT) use to reduce pain and edema in individuals subjected to surgical extraction of impacted mandibular third molars.Materials and methodsThirteen individuals (5 men and 8 women, mean age: 23.25 years) were subjected to mutual extraction of two mandibular third molars based on the same surgical protocol and pharmacological approach. All individuals were subjected to kinesio taping application on one side of patients' face (test group - KT), in the immediate postoperative period. The other side of the face was not subjected to KT application, and it was used as control (No KT). An examiner assessed individuals’ pain and edema based on the visual analog scale (VAS) and on the Todorović-Marković method, respectively, at the preoperative, immediate postoperative, and second and fifth postoperative days. Statistical analysis was based on the Scheirer–Ray–Hare test.ResultsEdema (48 h and 120 h after surgery) and pain intensity (24 h, 48 h and 120 h after surgery) were lower on the KT side (p < 0.05). Moreover, edema and pain intensity fully reduced on the KT side 120 h after surgery (p < 0.05).ConclusionKinesio taping adopted in the current study was effective in reducing edema and postoperative pain in patients subjected to oral surgery.Clinical relevanceKT enables patients to experience a more comfortable postoperative period and helps improving their quality of life.     

老年人慢性根尖周炎根管治疗一次术及多次术术后疼痛的临床研究

目的：比较老年人慢性根尖周炎根管治疗一次术及多次术术后疼痛的发生率和程度。方法：将老年人慢性根尖周炎患牙共70例随机分为两组：根管治疗一次术组（实验组,40例）和根管治疗多次术组（对照组,30例）,分别进行根管治疗一次术和多次术,于术后0h、6h、12h、24h、48h和7d由患者自评VAS疼痛分值,并于术后24h、7d临床评定患者疼痛率。结果：两组间术后各观察时间点患者自评VAS疼痛分值差异无统计学意义（P〉0．05）;两组间术后24h和术后7d临床评定轻、中、重度疼痛率差异无统计学意义（P〉0．05）。结论：老年人根尖周炎根管治疗一次术和多次术后患者自评疼痛程度及临床评定的疼痛发生率相近,提示在严格选择适应症并谨慎操作下,老年人根管治疗一次术具有临床可行性。