Antibiotics for Treatment of Clostridium difficile Infection in Hospitalized Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), namely ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn''s disease (CD), have worse outcomes with Clostridium difficile infection (CDI), including increased readmissions, colectomy, and death. Oral vancomycin is recommended for the treatment of severe CDI, while metronidazole is the standard of care for nonsevere infection. We aimed to assess treatment outcomes of CDI in IBD. We conducted a retrospective observational study of inpatients with CDI and IBD from January 2006 through December 2010. CDI severity was assessed using published criteria. Outcomes included readmission for CDI within 30 days and 12 weeks, length of stay, colectomy, and death. A total of 114 patients met inclusion criteria (UC, 62; CD, 52). Thirty-day readmissions were more common among UC than CD patients (24.2% versus 9.6%; P = 0.04). Same-admission colectomy occurred in 27.4% of UC patients and 0% of CD patients (P < 0.01). Severe CDI was more common among UC than CD patients (32.2% versus 19.4%; P = 0.12) but not statistically significant. Two patients died from CDI-associated complications (UC, 1; CD, 1). Patients with UC and nonsevere CDI had fewer readmissions and shorter lengths of stay when treated with a vancomycin-containing regimen compared to those treated with metronidazole (30-day readmissions, 31.0% versus 0% [P = 0.04]; length of stay, 13.62 days versus 6.38 days [P = 0.02]). Patients with UC and nonsevere CDI have fewer readmissions and shorter lengths of stay when treated with a vancomycin-containing regimen relative to those treated with metronidazole alone. Patients with ulcerative colitis and CDI should be treated with vancomycin.     

Risk Factors and Outcomes for Bloodstream Infections Secondary to Clostridium difficile Infection

We determined the incidence, risk factors, and outcomes of bloodstream infections (BSI) subsequent to Clostridium difficile infection (CDI). We performed a retrospective study of all patients with definite diagnosis of CDI admitted from January 2014 to December 2014 in two large hospitals in Rome. Two groups of patients were analyzed: those with CDI and subsequent BSI (CDI/BSI⁺) and those with CDI and no evidence of primary BSI (CDI/BSI⁻). Data about clinical features, microbiology, treatments, and mortality were obtained. Overall, 393 cases of CDI were included in the final analysis: 72 developed a primary nosocomial BSI, while 321 had CDI without microbiological and clinical evidence of BSI. Etiologic agents of BSI were Candida species (47.3%), Enterobacteriaceae (19.4%), enterococci (13.9%), and mixed infections (19.4%). In multivariate analysis, ribotype 027 status (odds ratio [OR], 6.5), CDI recurrence (OR, 5.5), severe CDI infection (OR, 8.3), and oral vancomycin at >500 mg/day (OR, 3.1) were recognized as factors independently associated with the development of nosocomial BSI. Thirty-day mortality from CDI diagnosis was higher for patients of the CDI/BSI⁺ group than for the controls (38.9 versus 13.1%; P < 0.001). Among patients of the CDI/BSI⁺ group, mortality attributable to primary BSI was as high as 57%. Our findings suggest that severe CDI is complicated by the development of nosocomial BSI. Candida species and enteric bacteria appear to be the leading causative pathogens and are associated with poor outcomes.     

Age-Stratified Treatment Response Rates in Hospitalized Patients with Clostridium difficile Infection Treated with Metronidazole

Consensus on the optimal treatment of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) is rapidly changing. Treatment with metronidazole has been associated with increased clinical failure rates; however, the reasons for this are unclear. The purpose of this study was to assess age-related treatment response rates in hospitalized patients with CDI treated with metronidazole. This was a retrospective, multicenter cohort study of hospitalized patients with CDI. Patients were assessed for refractory CDI, defined as persistent diarrhea after 7 days of metronidazole therapy, and stratified by age and clinical characteristics. A total of 242 individuals, aged 60 ± 18 years (Charlson comorbidity index, 3.8 ± 2.4; Horn''s index, 1.7 ± 1.0) were included. One hundred twenty-eight patients (53%) had severe CDI. Seventy patients (29%) had refractory CDI, a percentage that increased from 22% to 28% and to 37% for patients aged less than 50 years, for patients from 50 to 70 years, and for patients aged >70 years, respectively (P = 0.05). In multivariate analysis, Horn''s index (odds ratio [OR], 2.04; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.50 to 2.77; P < 0.001), severe CDI (OR, 2.25; 95% CI, 1.15 to 4.41; P = 0.018), and continued use of antibiotics (OR, 2.65; 95% CI, 1.30 to 5.39; P = 0.0072) were identified as significant predictors of refractory CDI. Age was not identified as an independent risk factor for refractory CDI. Therefore, hospitalized elderly patients with CDI treated with metronidazole had increased refractory CDI rates likely due to increased underlying severity of illness, severity of CDI, and concomitant antibiotic use. These results may help identify patients that may benefit from alternative C. difficile treatments other than metronidazole.     

住院患者跌倒危险因素与评估表的建立

目的探讨住院患跌倒的危险因素,并建立危险性评估表。方法选择2003年9月～2004年9月我院1434例住院患中发生跌倒事件17例,分析引起跌倒的危险因素．同时应用多元logistic回归系数权重法．建立住院患跌倒危险因素评估表：结果年龄、既往跌倒史、视听力情况、疾病因素、肢体情况、药物影响、不良症状、精神神经情况及平衡能力下降等是住院患跌倒的危险因素。结论对住院患应用跌倒危险因素评估表能全面了解患的状况．制订有效的预防措施,能防止住院患跌倒事件的发生,有助于提高医护安全性。     

Proton Pump Inhibitors and the Risk for Hospital-Acquired Clostridium difficile Infection

ObjectiveTo examine the relationship between proton pump inhibitor (PPI) usage and nosocomial Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) and determine the duration of therapy at which CDI risk increases.Patients and MethodsThis retrospective case-control study included consecutive adult patients in whom nosocomial CDI developed after hospitalization for 3 or more days at one of 2 affiliated hospitals between June 1, 2010, and October 31, 2011. These patients were matched to patients hospitalized within 6 months who did not have CDI development in a 1:2 ratio using age, sex, and antibiotic usage. Potential risk factors for CDI, including PPI use and duration, were evaluated. Multivariate analysis was performed to control for confounding variables and identify risk factors.ResultsA total of 201 patients were evaluated, 67 with CDI and 134 matched controls. Patients in whom CDI developed were more likely to have received a PPI (76% vs 39%; P<.001) and had a longer duration of PPI therapy (median [range], 5 [0-20] days vs 0 [0-11] days; P<.001) than those who did not have CDI development. After controlling for prior hospital admission, intensive care unit admission, admission from a skilled nursing facility, immunosuppression, number of antibiotics received, PPI duration, and time to event via multivariate analysis, PPI duration was found to be a risk factor for CDI (odds ratio, 1.14; 95% CI, 1.02-1.27; P=.018). The probability for CDI was higher when PPI use exceeded 2 days in patients without a prior hospital admission and 1 day in patients with a prior admission.ConclusionThe duration of PPI therapy is significantly associated with CDI. Clinicians should strongly consider restricting PPI use given the short exposure time associated with this increased risk.     

Gastrointestinal Colonization with a Cephalosporinase-Producing Bacteroides Species Preserves Colonization Resistance against Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococcus and Clostridium difficile in Cephalosporin-Treated Mice

Antibiotics that are excreted into the intestinal tract may disrupt the indigenous intestinal microbiota and promote colonization by health care-associated pathogens. β-Lactam, or penicillin-type, antibiotics are among the most widely utilized antibiotics worldwide and may also adversely affect the microbiota. Many bacteria are capable, however, of producing β-lactamase enzymes that inactivate β-lactam antibiotics. We hypothesized that prior establishment of intestinal colonization with a β-lactamase-producing anaerobe might prevent these adverse effects of β-lactam antibiotics, by inactivating the portion of antibiotic that is excreted into the intestinal tract. Here, mice with a previously abolished microbiota received either oral normal saline or an oral cephalosporinase-producing strain of Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron for 3 days. Mice then received 3 days of subcutaneous ceftriaxone, followed by either oral administration of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) or sacrifice and assessment of in vitro growth of epidemic and nonepidemic strains of Clostridium difficile in murine cecal contents. Stool concentrations of VRE and ceftriaxone were measured, cecal levels of C. difficile 24 h after incubation were quantified, and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) of microbial 16S rRNA genes was performed to evaluate the antibiotic effect on the microbiota. The results demonstrated that establishment of prior colonization with a β-lactamase-producing intestinal anaerobe inactivated intraintestinal ceftriaxone during treatment with this antibiotic, allowed recovery of the normal microbiota despite systemic ceftriaxone, and prevented overgrowth with VRE and epidemic and nonepidemic strains of C. difficile in mice. These findings describe a novel probiotic strategy to potentially prevent pathogen colonization in hospitalized patients.     

老年人群肺炎住院患者急性肾损伤的发病率和危险因素

目的：分析探讨社区获得性肺炎（Community Acquired Pneumonia, CAP）老年患者急性肾损伤（Acute Kidney Injury, AKI）的发病率和相关危险因素。方法：回顾性分析2018年1月至2020年12月福建省立医院老年科≥60岁的老年患者诊断为CAP的临床资料,将其分为AKI组和非AKI组。比较两组患者基线特征和临床资料的差异,评价CAP老年患者的AKI发病率;应用Logistic回归模型分析AKI相关危险因素。结果：入选资料完整的326例CAP老年患者中,年龄（69.8±17.5）岁,男性218例（66.87%）,AKI患者135例（41.41%）;AKI组合并慢性肾脏病和冠状动脉疾病比例、血尿酸水平、血胆红素、血乳酸脱氢酶、CAP患者CURB-65评分、血肌酐、血尿素氮均明显高于非AKI组,血白蛋白和总蛋白均明显低于非AKI组,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）;经多因素Logistic回归分析显示高血胆红素、低血白蛋白、高CURB-65评分可能是老年患者CAP出现AKI的独立危险因素。结论：CAP住院的老年患者中AKI的发生率41.41%,高血胆红素、低血白蛋白、高CURB-65评分可能是CAP老年患者AKI的独立危险因素。临床应警惕CAP老年患者AKI的预防和早期发现。     

Asymptomatic Clostridium difficile colonization as a reservoir for Clostridium difficile infection

Clostridium difficile (CD) infection (CDI) is the leading cause of healthcare associated diarrhea despite intense hospital infection prevention programs. A substantial proportion of the population is asymptomatically colonized with CD, and evidence is mounting that these individuals serve as a reservoir for CDI. The purpose of this review is to discuss the mechanisms by which individuals may harbor toxigenic CD but remain asymptomatic, the evidence that asymptomatically colonized individuals serve as a source of CDI, and the implications of this potential CD reservoir for healthcare infection prevention.     

Clostridium difficile Infection in Patients With Chronic Kidney Disease

ObjectiveTo examine the rate of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) and hospital-associated outcomes in a national cohort of hospitalized patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and assess the impact of long-term dialysis on outcome in these patients.Patients and MethodsData for January 1, 2005, through December 31, 2009 were obtained from the National Hospital Discharge Survey, which includes information on patient demographics, diagnoses, procedures, and discharge types. Data collected and analyzed for this study included age, sex, race, admission type (urgent or emergent combined vs elective), any colectomy diagnosis, length of stay, type of discharge, and mortality. International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification codes were utilized to identify CKD patients and CDI events. Weighted analysis was performed using JMP version 9.ResultsAn estimated 162 million adults were hospitalized during 2005-2009, and 8.03 million (5%) had CKD (median age, 71 years). The CDI rate in CKD patients was 1.49% (0.119 million) compared with 0.70% (1.14 million) in patients without CKD (P<.001). Patients with CKD who were undergoing long-term dialysis were more than 2 times as likely to develop CDI than non-CKD patients and 1.33 times more likely than CKD patients not undergoing dialysis (all P<.001). In a weighted multivariate analysis adjusting for sex and comorbidities, patients with CKD and CDI had longer hospitalization, higher colectomy rate (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 2.30; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.14-2.47), dismissal to a health care facility (aOR, 2.22; 95% CI, 2.19-2.25), and increased in-hospital mortality (aOR, 1.55; 95% CI, 1.52-1.59; all P<.001) as compared with CKD patients without CDI. Patients with CKD who were undergoing long-term dialysis did not have worse outcomes as compared with CKD patients who were not undergoing long-term dialysis.ConclusionThese data suggest that patients with CKD have a higher risk of CDI and increased hospital-associated morbidity and mortality. Future prospective studies are needed to confirm these findings and to identify effective CDI prevention in CKD patients, who appear to have an increased risk of CDI acquisition.     

Coexisting Systemic Infections in Patients Hospitalized Because of a Fall: Prevalence and Risk Factors

BackgroundInfectious disease–related factors that may contribute to or complicate falls have received relatively little attention in the literature.ObjectiveOur aim was to determine the prevalence of, and risk factors for, coexisting systemic infections (CSIs) in patients admitted to the hospital because of a fall or its complications.MethodsWe conducted a retrospective cohort study of adult patients seen at a tertiary care hospital emergency department and subsequently hospitalized because of a fall or its complications.ResultsOf 1,456 evaluable cases, 775 patients (53.2%) were female. Mean age was 71.6 years (range 18–104 years). CSI was diagnosed in 303 patients (20.8%), of which 166 (54.8%) were urinary tract infections and 108 (35.6%) were pneumonia cases; 14 patients (4.6%) were bacteremic. CSI was not initially suspected by providers in 98 (32.5%) subsequently diagnosed cases. Age ≥50 years (odds ratio [OR] 5.6; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.2–24.9), inability to get up on own after the index fall (OR 2.1; 95% CI 1.2–3.6), preexisting symptom(s) (OR 3.0; 95% CI 1.8–5.2), and systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) (OR 2.9; 95% CI 1.5–5.4), or confusion at presentation (OR 3.0; 95% CI 1.5–6.0) were independently associated with CSI. In-hospital mortality rate was significantly higher among patients with CSI (6.9% vs. 3.8 %, OR 1.9; 95% CI 1.1–3.3).ConclusionsCSIs are common among patients admitted to the hospital after a fall or its complications. Age ≥ 50 years, inability to get up on own, preexisting symptom(s), and the presence of SIRS or confusion at presentation are potential predictors of CSI in this patient population.     

Policy development for Clostridium difficile

The Advisory Committee on Antimicrobial Resistance and Healthcare Associated Infection (ARHAI) was created at the height of the incidence of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI). This article describes the role of ARHAI in the evaluation of laboratory testing for CDI, a related consultation on the legal requirements for manufacturers of in vitro diagnostic medical devices, a CDI healthcare bundle and surveillance of CDI in children.     

Fidaxomicin Therapy in Critically Ill Patients with Clostridium difficile Infection

Fidaxomicin use to treat proven Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) was compared between 20 patients receiving care in critical care units (CCUs) and 30 patients treated on general medical floors. At baseline, the CCU patients had more initial CDI episodes, more severe and complicated disease, and more concurrent broad-spectrum antibiotic coverage. On multivariate analysis, the response to fidaxomicin therapy among the critically ill patients was comparable to that among patients in the general medical wards.     

Evaluation of the Xpert Clostridium difficile Assay for the Diagnosis of Clostridium difficile Infection

Infection with Clostridium difficile is a growing concern because of the increasing prevalence and spread of nosocomial infections. Emergence of the hypervirulent 027/NAP1/BI strain is also notable. Existing diagnostic methods have low sensitivity or are time-consuming. Therefore, establishing a rapid and accurate microbiological diagnostic assay is needed. We evaluated the Xpert C. difficile assay (Xpert CD assay; Cepheid, USA) to detect toxigenic C. difficile. This assay is a real-time multiplex PCR assay that can be used to detect toxigenic C. difficile strains and differentiate the C. difficile presumptive 027/NAP1/BI strain. A total of 253 loose stool specimens were collected and toxigenic cultures, VIDAS C. difficile A & B assays (VIDAS CDAB assay; bioMérieux, France), and the Xpert CD assay were performed. In comparison to toxigenic cultures, the sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values were 100%, 94.6%, 83.1%, and 100%, respectively, for the Xpert CD assay and 40.8%, 98.0%, 100%, and 88.9%, respectively, for VIDAS CDAB assay. Because of the low prevalence of the PCR ribotype 027 in Korea, the evaluation of the usefulness of the Xpert CD assay for screening for the 027 strain was limited. The Xpert CD assay provides great sensitivity in diagnosing toxigenic C. difficile infection. In addition, this method has excellent usability because it is simple and fast.     

Risk Stratification for Cardiac Complications in Patients Hospitalized for Community-Acquired Pneumonia

ObjectiveTo derive and validate a clinical rule that stratifies the risk of cardiac complications in patients hospitalized for community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) and compare its performance to the pneumonia severity index (PSI) score.Patients and MethodsTwo cohorts of patients hospitalized for CAP were selected for the study. We used regression techniques in the derivation cohort (1343 patients enrolled in the Pneumonia Patient Outcomes Research Team study between October 1991 and March 1994) to generate a prediction rule that we validated in the validation cohort (608 patients enrolled in the Dissemination of Guidelines for Length of Stay study between February 1998 and March 1999). Discrimination and reclassification analyses compared its performance against the PSI score.ResultsA prediction model for cardiac complications in the derivation cohort included age, 3 preexisting conditions, 2 vital signs, and 7 common laboratory or radiographic parameters. Discrimination (C statistic, 0.81; 95% CI, 0.78-0.84) and calibration (Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test, χ²=13.0; P=.11) were good. We derived a point score system from this model that when applied to the validation cohort also had good discrimination (C statistic, 0.78; 95% CI, 0.74-0.83) and calibration (Hosmer-Lemeshow, χ²=9.0; P=.34). On the basis of this score, we defined 4 categories of incremental risk of cardiac complications. The incidence of cardiac complications across risk categories increased linearly (from lowest to highest) in both the derivation (3.0%, 17.8%, 35.2%, and 72.2%) and validation (5.0%, 8.2%, 28.3%, and 48.9%) cohorts (Cochran-Armitage linear trend test, P<.01). The new score outperformed the PSI score in predicting cardiac complications in the validation cohort (C statistic, 0.78 vs 0.74; P=.03; proportion of patients correctly reclassified by the new score, 44%).ConclusionWe derived and validated a clinical rule that accurately stratifies the risk of cardiac complications in patients hospitalized for CAP.     

营养危险评分量表在住院老年患者中的应用

目的探讨营养危险评分量表（nutrition risk score，NRS）的预测效果、与传统营养指标的关系、NRS分值的影响因素以及对住院老年患者营养危险程度评估工作中的价值。方法对80名住院老年患者进行营养危险评分，同时收集人体测量学指标、实验室指标以及患者的基本资料。结果根据NRS量表与营养不良标准的ROC曲线分析，NRS量表能对营养不良进行预测；按照NRS分组，除总蛋白、球蛋白、血红蛋白和淋巴细胞数的NRS4组无显著性差异，其余营养指标各组间均有显著性差异；NRS量表内5个项目中对其总分影响最大的为体质指数。结论NRS的分组有良好的可靠性，能较好地评估住院老年患者营养问题危险程度，值得护理人员的临床运用以及早发现老年患者的营养危险问题。