改良扩大前颅底入路的解剖及临床应用

目的　探讨改良扩大前颅底入路的显微解剖和临床应用效果。 方法　选用福尔马林固定的成人尸头标本15例，颅骨标本20例进行解剖学观察，并对13例应用该入路切除的颅底中线区肿瘤进行临床分析。 结果　与标准前颅底入路相比改良扩大前颅底入路的暴露范围明显扩大。通过将鼻骨与眶板一起截除，可保留足够长度的鼻中隔粘膜。术式的暴露范围主要受限于双侧的视神经、颈内动脉、翼管、舌下神经管等结构。本组13例中，9例全切除；1例近全切除；3例大部切除。术后发生并发症5例。无手术死亡。 结论　改良扩大前颅底入路具有暴露充分、脑损伤小、可有效保护嗅觉等优点。该入路是切除颅底中线部位侵犯眶、鼻、筛、蝶和斜坡肿瘤的较佳入路。     

经口入路至颈静脉孔区的显微外科解剖

目的:为经口入路至颈静脉孔区处理颈静脉孔区病变提供解剖学依据。方法:在显微镜下对经彩色乳胶灌注成人尸头湿标本的颈静脉孔区经口入路进行解剖,观察路径中组织结构的暴露情况和走行关系,定位相关解剖标志,记录测量数据。结果:尸头标本的颈静脉孔区颅外部分均显露良好,可暴露自颈动脉嵴内侧至枕骨髁后外侧缘和中线至茎突根部区域,磨除颈静脉孔前内侧骨质后,可观察到岩下窦、Ⅸ～Ⅺ神经在孔内走行和毗邻关系。测量相关参数,枕髁前缘距舌下神经管外口前缘(12.47±1.49)mm;舌下神经管外口上缘距颈动脉嵴内侧(9.90±1.40)mm等。结论:经口入路可较好的暴露颈静脉孔区前内侧,以枕髁和颈动脉嵴为解剖标志,有助于避免此入路处理颈静脉孔区病变时对重要血管和神经的损伤。     

内镜下经口入路至颈静脉孔区处理沟通型肿瘤的临床应用解剖

目的　研究内镜下经口入路至颈静脉孔区解剖,以期为临床上切除该区域的沟通型肿瘤提供解剖学依据。 方法　在内镜下对15具尸头模拟经口入路,观察颈静脉孔区颅内外的暴露情况,定位解剖标志并记录相关参数。 结果　内镜下经口入路可很好显露颈静脉孔区颅外段,尤其是其前内侧区域,在磨除舌下神经管外口至中线骨质后可获得颅内脑干腹侧中线区域的最佳暴露。枕髁、髁上槽、颈动脉嵴为重要的解剖标志。其中枕髁前缘距舌下神经管外口下缘(14.51±2.30) mm,枕髁前缘距颈动脉嵴(24.11±2.19) mm,枕髁前缘距颈静脉结节上端(21.26±2.26) mm。 结论　该入路有助于处理肿瘤主体偏于颈静脉孔内侧的沟通型肿瘤。     

内镜经眉弓上锁孔入路的解剖学研究

目的 探索内镜经眉弓上锁孔入路暴露颅底中线区域的解剖结构,为临床该术式切除颅底中线区域肿瘤提供解剖学基础。 方法 内镜经眉弓上锁孔入路解剖5具成人尸头标本,观察该入路暴露的颅底中线区域脑组织、血管及神经。 结果 内镜经眉弓上锁孔入路可充分暴露前床突及其内侧前颅底硬脑膜、嗅沟及嗅神经;蝶鞍区可显露视神经、视交叉、视交叉前间隙、垂体上动脉、眼动脉、颈内动脉及其周围间隙;上斜坡区域可显露鞍背硬脑膜、乳头体、基底动脉末端、小脑上动脉、大脑后动脉、后交通动脉、动眼神经、滑车神经、三叉神经、面神经、前庭蜗神经及脑桥腹侧。 结论 内镜经眉弓上锁孔入路切除颅底中线区域肿瘤在解剖学上可行,临床上可作为常规显微镜手术及经鼻内镜入路手术的有效补充。     

颞下经下颌入路显露侧颅底区的应用解剖学研究

目的研究颞下经下颌入路应用解剖,为术中保护重要结构提供解剖学参考。方法选用成人尸头10例(20侧),摹拟手术入路,解剖观察、测量相关结构,探求入路涉及的骨、肌肉和神经血管间的解剖关系。结果影响该入路暴露的主要结构包括面神经、腮腺、颧弓和下颌升支。颞下窝和翼腭窝血管神经丰富,茎突及其筋膜将咽旁间隙分为咽旁前和咽旁后间隙,后者容纳颈内静脉、颈内动脉和Ⅸ、Ⅹ、Ⅺ及Ⅻ对脑神经。结论颞下经下颌入路暴露充分,熟悉其应用解剖对手术治疗侧颅底区沟通性肿瘤具有重要意义。     

颅底外面枕骨基底部及周边骨性结构的测量和临床意义

目的为斜坡区肿瘤手术提供解剖资料。方法20例整颅,10例行水平切面,10例行正中矢状切面。测量切牙孔、前鼻棘、后鼻棘、枕骨大孔前端、枕髁前端、卵圆孔、破裂孔、颈动脉管外口及舌下神经管外口的内侧缘至咽结节的距离;测量卵圆孔、破裂孔、颈动脉管外口及舌下神经管外口的内侧缘至正中线的距离;测量枕骨基底部颅底外面的长径、枕骨大孔纵径(FML)、枕骨大孔前正中点与枕髁后缘连线垂直距离(AOCP)、枕髁轴径(OCA)、枕髁间距。结果切牙孔后缘、前鼻棘、后鼻棘、枕骨大孔前端、枕髁前端、卵圆孔、破裂孔、颈动脉管外口及舌下神经管外口的内侧缘至咽结节的距离分别为(mm):72.12±4.25、77.77±3.89、33.73±2.07、13.14±1.91、15.71±1.74、27.51±2.12、15.98±1.98、25.93±2.23、19.15±1.49。卵圆孔、破裂孔、颈动脉管及舌下神经管外口的内侧缘至中线的距离分别为:25.55±1.63、11.72±1.70、25.75±1.98、17.41±1.41。枕骨基底部颅底外面长径、FML、AOCP、OCA、枕髁间距分别为(mm):28.80±2.67、35.84±2.59、17.10±1.13、24.55±2.35、21.07±1.92。结论经口咽至斜坡区的手术入路中,开骨窗时安全范围是以咽结节为中心,以15mm为半径做斜坡磨除;也可以做矩形骨窗,即以咽结节为中心开一长(高)25mm×宽20mm的骨窗。     

颞下经下颌入路相关骨性结构解剖及其临床意义

目的研究与颞下经下颌入路相关的骨性结构解剖,为扩大手术暴露提供解剖学参考。方法选用成人尸头10例(20侧),经模拟手术后去除软组织,显露相关骨性结构,进行观察和测量。结果颧弓是暴露中颅底和颞下窝的关键,颧弓长度和下颌关节窝宽度分别为32.9±2.6mm和15.5±1.3mm;下颌孔位于下颌升支内侧面中央略偏后上方,下颌升支的斜行截骨安全且可以获得最佳的纵向暴露;颞下窝,翼腭窝和咽旁间隙骨性结构复杂,腔隙众多且互为交通;茎突是重要的解剖标志,其根部至颈静脉孔后缘仅2.95±0.25mm。结论颞下经下颌入路暴露充分,掌握相关骨性解剖对手术治疗侧颅底区沟通性肿瘤具有重要意义。     

模拟内镜下经双鼻孔至Meckel腔的解剖

目的 通过模拟内镜下经双鼻孔至Meckel腔手术入路,对Meckel腔及入路的相关结构进行解剖学研究,为临床内镜下Meckel腔手术提供解剖学及形态学资料。
方法 对10具(20侧)动静脉灌注乳胶的成人尸头标本,完全模拟经双鼻孔至Meckel腔的手术入路逐层显微解剖,对入路相关解剖标志进行观察、分析、拍摄和测量。 结果 该入路可分4步,即寻找上颌窦口,进入上颌窦,进入翼腭窝和进入Meckel腔。鼻小柱距上颌窦口的距离为（45.07±2.01）mm,与蝶腭孔的距离为(64.84±3.00)mm,距翼管前孔距离为(71.34±2.99)mm。以鼻小柱至鼻后棘的连线为底边,其与鼻小柱与上颌窦口连线的夹角为(38.81±1.72)。其与鼻小柱与蝶腭孔连线的夹角为(25.92±2.05) °。蝶腭动脉及翼管动脉平均外径分别为(2.21±0.24)mm和(1.07±0.27)mm。翼腭窝区结构复杂,其内上颌动脉及其终支蝶腭动脉和腭降动脉变异较大,沿蝶腭动脉逆行解剖有助于寻找上颌动脉及其分支结构。解剖分离翼腭窝内神经、血管等结构,追踪翼管神经血管束,依据翼管后端正对颈内动脉破裂孔段的特点,解剖分离四方形空间可较直接进入Meckel腔。结论 侵犯Meckel腔肿瘤的入路选择应该个体化,应依据肿瘤主体在Meckel腔的位置及范围等决定选1种或联合入路;内镜下经双鼻孔至Meckel腔入路可较直接地暴露Meckel腔的前下内面及翼腭窝区域的解剖结构;手术中重要的解剖标志为蝶腭孔、翼管神经、翼管和上颌神经;翼腭窝中浅部血管结构的解剖有助于深部神经结构的保护,深部神经结构（如翼管神经和上颌神经）和其穿行的骨孔有助于在颅底辨别和控制颈内动脉。     

枕骨大孔腹侧区肿瘤手术入路的应用解剖

目的:探讨枕骨大孔区腹侧肿瘤的最佳手术入路及其应用解剖学基础.方法:在5例共10侧正常人尸头标本上模拟枕下外侧经枕髁入路逐层解剖观测毗邻结构,到达枕骨大孔腹外侧区.结果:应用此入路切除部分枕髁可满意暴露枕骨大孔腹外侧区,而对重要的血管神经损伤最小.结论:枕下远外侧入路是枕骨大孔腹侧区肿瘤的最佳手术入路.     

颅底颈静脉孔区骨性测量的应用解剖

目的:通过研究颅底颈静脉孔及其周围结构形态学参数,为国人颅底应用解剖学和骨学体质调查积累资料,为颅底外科突破手术禁区提供形态学基础。方法:选取100例成人骨性颅底标本,测量了骨性颅底颈静脉孔的前后径、内外径及颈静脉窝的深度,颈静脉孔与邻近结构之间的距离,以及枕髁的长度、宽度及枕髁与周围结构之间的距离。结果:颈静脉孔的前后径左侧为(7.90±2.01)mm,右侧为(8.80±1.63)mm;内外径左侧为(13.9±2.44)mm,右侧(14.47±2.52)mm。颈静脉窝深度左侧(12.28±2.41)mm,右侧(13.79±3.67)mm。乳突尖与颈静脉孔的外侧缘的距离左侧为(23.47±2.65)mm,右侧为(22.84±2.88)mm;茎乳孔与颈静脉孔外缘的间距左侧为(7.44±1.36)mm,右侧为(6.78±1.61)mm。颈静脉孔内侧缘至舌下神经管内口外侧缘的距离左侧为(9.09±0.76)mm,右侧为(9.86±1.25)mm;枕髁前端距舌下神经管外口前缘间距左侧(14.46±1.23)mm、右侧(11.41±1.91)mm;枕髁后端距舌下神经管外口后缘间距左侧(11.09±2.75)mm,右侧(14.39±1.85)mm。结论:在颈静脉孔区肿瘤远外侧入路手术中,磨除孔外侧与乳突间骨质时,自乳突尖约16mm处注意保护自茎乳孔出颅的面神经;在内侧入路手术中可磨除枕髁前半部不超过11mm;枕髁磨除的厚度不超过10mm,以防在磨除枕髁时伤及横过髁中部深面的舌下神经。在切除颈静脉孔前缘或前上缘的肿瘤采用经口咽入路时磨除颈静脉结节的厚度在8mm以内可防止伤及舌下神经。     

Palatal analysis and osteology of the hard palate of the Kenyan African skulls

One hundred twenty-five dry skulls from Kenya that consisted of about 90% Bantu individuals were examined to obtain data on the gross anatomy of the hard palate. The palatine index showed that 43.2% of the total sample of skulls has narrow (leptostaphyline), 23.7% intermediate (mesostaphyline), and 33.1% wide (brachystaphyline) palates. The palatine height index showed that 40% skulls had low (chamestaphyline), 57% intermediate (orthostaphyline), and 3.0% deep (hypsistaphyline) palates. Mean palatal length, breadth, and height for the total sample was 4.92 cm, 4.02 cm, and 1.22 cm, respectively. The incisive foramen and canal was cone shaped in 80% where the diameter of the foramen was less than 0.4 cm, while it was cylindrical in 20% where the diameter was greater than 0.4 cm. Forty-nine per cent of the skulls had two-five lesser palatine foramina present. The greater palatine foramen was found to lie at the level of the third molar in 76%, intermediate between second and third molars in 13.6%, and opposite the second molar in 10.4%. The greater palatine foramen opened antero-medially in 74% and perpendicularly in 26% of the palates. Extensive longitudinal palatal grooves were found bilaterally in all the palates, 70% showed divisions of the grooves, 63.2% had crests along the border of the grooves, and 19.2% had bridges in the posterior part of the groove near the opening of the greater palatine foramen. The incidence of palatine torus was 4.8%. The incisive suture was present in 6.4% of the adult palates.     

Variations of the prominences of the bony palate and their relationship to complete dentures in Korean skulls.

The osteological and morphological variations of the prominences in the bony palate of 160 Korean skulls were studied. The frequency of the occurrence of the posterior palatine crest, located on the posterior border of the greater palatine foramen, was 13.8%. Palatal ridges were observed commonly in the skulls; however, the smooth type, which has no palatal ridges in the palate, was shown in 14.7% of cases, and palatal spines were observed in 33.8%. The prevalence of palatal tubercles was 11.6%, and all were found in the molar region. The palatine torus was found in 18.8% of cases and the most common type was along the median palatine suture from the incisive foramen to the posterior border of the palatine bone (63.3%). No significant differences between sexes or sides were found in the posterior palatine crest, palatal ridges, and palatal tubercle. However, the sex distribution of the palatine torus was significantly different (P < 0.05). These results would be helpful clinically in fabricating maxillary complete dentures for edentulous patients.     

Microvascular architecture of the palatine mucosa in the common squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus).

Detailed observations were made of the structure and microvasculature of the palatine mucous membrane of the common squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) by means of the plastic injection method under a scanning electron microscope. The findings obtained were compared with those of the Japanese monkey and other mammals. The osseous palate was flat horizontally and a pair of incisive foramina were apparently open at the anterior end of the hard palate. At the posterior end of the osseous palate, the pterygopalatine incisurae were found bilaterally. The incisive papilla was not obvious in form and size, and a pair of openings of the incisive canal were always situated on both sides of the papilla. The transverse palatine plicae or ridges numbered 7 or 8 symmetrically. They arched posterolaterally with an anterior protrusion near each median end. Posterior plicae were underdeveloped. Numerous openings of the palatine glands were found in the soft palatine mucosa. The arteries supplying the palate were the major palatine artery passing through the major palatine foramen and the soft palatine artery passing through the pterygopalatine incisura. The major palatine artery extended forwards giving off numerous medial and lateral branches, and its end on the respective side entered a small foramen located lateral to the incisive foramen. Medial and lateral branches formed the submucous arterial network. Arterioles diverging from this network were directed to the epithelial surface and formed an arterial network in the lamina propria. Further, capillaries diverging from the latter network built up the subepithelial capillary network immediately beneath the epithelium. Capillary loops sprouting from the capillary network were found in the form of a simple hair-pin without locational differences in their heights. The microvascular architecture thus displayed some similarity with that of the Japanese monkey. However, the vascular networks in the lamina propria and submucous layer were not distinct in size and scale as compared to those of the Japanese monkey. These differences may be related to the stature, living environment and food habits of this species.     

Frequency variations of discrete cranial traits in major human populations. III. Hyperostotic variations

Seven discrete cranial traits usually categorised as hyperostotic characters, the medial palatine canal, hypoglossal canal bridging, precondylar tubercle, condylus tertius, jugular foramen bridging, auditory exostosis, and mylohyoid bridging were investigated in 81 major human population samples from around the world. Significant asymmetric occurrences of the bilateral traits were detected in the medial palatine canal and jugular foramen bridging in several samples. Significant intertrait associations were found between some pairs of the traits, but not consistently across the large geographical samples. The auditory exostosis showed a predominant occurrence in males. With the exception of the auditory exostosis and mylohyoid bridging in a few samples, significant sex differences were slight. The frequency distributions of the traits (except for the auditory exostosis) showed some interregional clinality and intraregional discontinuity, suggesting that genetic drift could have contributed to the observed pattern of variation.     

Bony bridge on the hard palate anterior to greater palatine foramen

An anatomical pecularity was observed in the form of a bony bridge connecting the palatal spines in front of the greater palatine foramen in 17.1% of edenticulus human skulls, while in the cadavers, these spines were seen connected by a tough fibrous band.     

Anatomical study of the greater palatine artery and related structures of the palatal vault: considerations for palate as the subepithelial connective tissue graft donor site

Palate is considered as a tissue graft donor site for dental surgical procedures. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the anatomy of palatal structures, such as greater palatine artery, greater palatine foramen, and incisive fossa, in order to consider their topography at planning the graft dimensions and reduce the potential risk of injury of greater palatine artery. Direct inspection of 41 Thai cadavers was performed. The results showed the statistically significant differences as for the length of female and male palates (p = 0.017); however, vertical measurements were equally distributed in examined population. Main location of greater palatine foramen was palatal to the second molar (35.7%), as well as, interproximal to the second and third molars (35.7%) in women, and palatal to the second molar in men (65%). GPA was branching most frequently at the level of first premolar (38%) and at first and second molars together (43%) in women. In men, the branching on the alveolar process side was commonly observed at the level of first and second premolars together (56%), and at the level of second and third molars together (32%). In the area between maxillary first premolar and second molar, it appeared possible to harvest a connective tissue graft measuring at least 5 mm in height. The results of this research will provide the useful data for other comparative studies and for assisting periodontologists in planning the dimensions and harvesting the subepithelial connective tissue grafts from palate.     

翼腭间隙的三维断层解剖

目的：为翼腭间隙疾病的影像诊断提供解剖学资料。方法：选用成人尸体头颈部制成连续横、矢、冠状断面,观察翼腭间隙及其结构的解剖学关系,利用游标卡尺及求积仪分别测量其径线和面积。结果：翼腭间隙形态多变,经蝶骨体横断层面较固定,与翼突形态密切相关。两侧翼腭间隙及其结构呈对称性,径线和面积均无显著性差异。横断面可清晰显示翼腭间隙前、后、内侧和外侧壁上的结构及圆孔、翼管、蝶腭孔、翼上颌裂和眶下裂等自然通道；矢状断面能较好显示翼腭管、腭大管及腭小管的连续性；冠状断面利于观察翼腭间隙顶壁、圆孔、眶下裂、翼管及其与蝶窦的关系。结论：翼腭间隙的三维断层解剖对疾病的影像诊断具有重要意义。     

翼腭窝及其通道的CT影像与断层标本对照研究及临床意义

目的观察CT影像和断层标本上对翼腭窝及其通道的解剖学特点,为翼腭窝病变的影像诊断及手术入路提供依据。方法选取我院2012年3月—2013年1月翼腭窝及其通道区域未见异常的40名成人检查者的CT影像,采用多平面重组（MPR）技术进行重建图像。选用成人尸体头颈部标本30例,分别制成连续横、矢、冠状断层（各10例）。分别在CT影像及断层标本上,观察并测量翼腭窝及其通道的长度和宽度等径线。结果CT影像和断层标本横断层面可清晰显示翼腭窝前、后壁和翼管、蝶腭孔、翼上颌裂等通道,矢状层面能较好显示圆孔和翼腭管及腭大、小管的连续性,冠状层面利于观察翼腭窝内侧、上壁和眶下裂、翼管及其与蝶窦的关系;在经蝶骨体横断层面上的翼腭窝形态较固定,前后径分别为（6．16±0．65）mm和（6．22±0．44）mm,内外侧径分别为（23．10±1．16）mm和（23．34±0．67）mm。翼腭窝及其通道呈对称性,CT影像和断层标本的径线除眶下裂前后径外差异均无统计学意义（P值均〉0．05）。结论不同方位的CT影像和断层标本能清楚显示翼腭窝及其通道的解剖学关系,对翼腭窝病变的影像诊断及手术入路具有重要临床意义。     

Clinical anatomy of the posterior maxilla pertaining to Le Fort I osteotomy in Thais

This article studies the anatomy of the posterior maxilla pertaining to bone-cut design of Le Fort I osteotomy to avoid the injury to the descending palatine artery in Thais. Fifty-five skulls (38 males, 17 females) were assessed for the anatomical landmarks by a combination of direct inspection, computerized imaging, and computed tomography scan analysis. The results showed that 27.28% of the pterygomaxillary junction (PMJ) became synostosis. The mean heights of the PMJ, posterior maxilla, and maxillary tuberosity were 15.14 +/- 2.46 mm, 22.51 +/- 3.50 mm, and 7.45 +/- 2.76 mm, respectively. The mean length of the medial sinus wall measuring from the piriform rim to the descending palatine canal at the Le Fort I level was 34.40 +/- 2.96 mm. The mean widths of the posterior incision of Le Fort I osteotomy at the maxillary tuberosity and PMJ were 20.38 +/- 2.82 mm and 11.60 +/- 1.57 mm. The mean length of the posterior maxilla was 27.18 +/- 2.49 mm. Distances from the greater palatine foramen to the maxillary tuberosity incision and PMJ incision were 1.76 +/- 1.12 mm and 3.59 +/- 1.40 mm. The mean angle between the descending palatine canal and the hard palate was 57.33 +/- 4.54 degrees . There were no significant differences in any measurements between sides and genders, except the pterygoid process width and posterior maxilla length of males were longer than those of females (P < 0.05). This study could provide better understanding of the posterior maxillary anatomy that is important for the bone-cut design of Le Fort I osteotomy to avoid excessive intraoperative and postoperative hemorrhage including ischemia of the mobilized maxilla.