Social capital as norms and resources: Focus groups discussing alcohol

The aim of this article is to analyse the relationship between peer-group social capital and the use of alcohol among young people – as this relationship is expressed in focus group interviews. The main point to be made is that social capital affects alcohol use in two different ways: it incites some forms of drinking (‘controlled drunkenness’) while restricting others (drinking alone, drinking ‘for the wrong reason’, losing control often). Furthermore, the idea behind this article is that social capital is both a background factor influencing participants’ relationship to alcohol and an effect of their drinking experience. We apply Coleman's micro-oriented perspective on local network mechanisms – with a specific focus on collective norms negotiated in the focus groups – in combination with Bourdieu's definition of social capital as resources. The data used in this article come from focus group interviews with 18–19-year-old Danes.     

Young men, masculinity and alcohol

Over the last ten years we have witnessed a great increase in writing on the nature of masculinity and the development of the concept of multiple masculinities, but much of this material has been speculative and highly theoretical. The related work linking masculinities to alcohol has often had a psychometric slant. The current paper aims to show the wider relevance of new theoretical ideas on masculinities to alcohol consumption among young men. Specifically: to describe the social context of drinking and drunkenness among a sample of young men living in Greater Glasgow, and to analyse the masculine role component of such contemporary drinking cultures. A qualitative methodology was used. Ten focus groups and twelve in-depth 'life-trajectory' interviews were completed. Respondents were aged between 16 and 24 years. We discovered that the social context of male drinking is changing very rapidly and masculinities are being redefined. While there remains some evidence of traditional masculine drinking norms and alcohol use, the increasing diversity of drinking locations and alcohol products are instrumental in achieving new expressions of male identity among young men.     

The measurement of problem drinking in young adulthood

OBJECTIVE: Researchers and clinicians have been struggling for more than 20 years to define problem drinking. This study focuses on young adults and aims to examine the construct validity of three dimensions of problem drinking and to empirically determine appropriate cutpoints for problem drinking along these dimensions. METHOD: A stratified sample of 1,269 young adults who reported drinking alcohol in the year prior to 1995 was used in these analyses. Respondents were originally interviewed in 1985 in middle schools in a southeastern U.S. county. RESULTS: Symptoms of dependency and drunkenness were relatively common in this sample, but adverse consequences were rare. Results of analyses using the Chi-squared Automatic Interaction Detector (CHAID) and the SUrvey DAta ANalysis (SUDAAN) software suggest that drunkenness and adverse consequences are the most significant predictors of problems in other areas of life. Symptoms of dependency were significant only in interaction with drunkenness, although the analyses were limited to only lifetime measures of dependency. Appropriate cutpoints, based on these analyses, appear to be (1) drunk at least six times in the past year, (2) four or more lifetime symptoms of dependency and (3) one or perhaps two or more adverse consequences in the past year. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that frequency of drunkenness may be the single best indicator of problem drinking among young adults and that adverse consequences may indicate a more serious form of problem drinking than do symptoms of dependency. In addition, appropriate cutpoints on these dimensions for young adults appear to be similar to those that have been used in studies of adolescents. Further study of both adolescents and young adults is suggested.     

Prevalence and trends of alcohol use and misuse among adolescents and young adults in the Netherlands from 1993 to 2000

This study presents an overview of Dutch studies on prevalence of alcohol use and adds findings from our own study on prevalence of drinking among adolescents and young adults aged 12-30 years in the Netherlands. Data were collected as part of a longitudinal study by the Netherlands Twin Register in 1993 (n=3885), 1995 (n=4814), 1997 (n=3772) and 2000 (n=4090). Measures included lifetime alcohol use, frequency of drinking, quantity of drinking, lifetime drunkenness, frequency of drunkenness and problem drinking. The main findings are: (a) alcohol use increased with age until the age of 25, after which it decreased; (b) males exceeded females on all aspects of alcohol use, with exception of the youngest age group and lifetime alcohol use; (c) time trends indicated an increase in frequency and quantity of drinking among 12-15-year-old adolescents during the 1990s; and moreover, (d) 21-25-year-old females drank more frequently, consumed more drinks a week, had more experience with lifetime drunkenness and were drunk more often in 2000 than in 1993. Among 21-25-year-old males, an increase of drunkenness and problem drinking was displayed during the 1990s.     

Alcohol drinking habits and attitudes of the adult Jewish population in Israel 1987

The purpose of this article is to present attitudes towards alcohol drinking and non-ritual alcohol drinking habits among the general adult Jewish population in Israel, which have been revealed in the framework of a national survey. 1190 Israeli adults over the age of 20 were interviewed in June and July 1987. The findings, such as 3% daily drinkers, clearly indicated a worrisome prevalence of non-ritual alcohol use among Israelis and reinforced the position that the phenomenon of drinking is liable to develop into an important social and public health problem in the State of Israel. Various aspects of consumption of alcoholic beverages and attitudes towards drinking are described and a number of methodological issues (unique to this research) are discussed.     

Alcohol in emerging adulthood: 7-year study of problem and dependent drinkers

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the level, changes and predictors of alcohol consumption and binge drinking over a 7-year period among young adults (18-25 years) who met the criteria for problem drinking. METHOD: Interviews with 270 18 to 25 years old problem and dependent drinkers from representative public and private substance use treatment programs and the general population were conducted after 1, 3, 5, and 7 years. Measures included demographic characteristics, severity measures, and both formal and informal influences on drinking. RESULTS: Overall alcohol consumption declined over time but leveled off around 24 years of age. Being male, not attending AA over time, as well as more baseline dependence symptoms and greater ASI alcohol and legal severity were associated with greater consumption and binge drinking. In addition, greater levels of binge drinking were associated with less education, earlier age of first use, and a larger social network of heavy drinkers. In conclusion, more attention should be paid to heavy drinking among young adults and to the factors that influence their drinking patterns.     

‘I feel like I have to become part of that identity’: Negotiating femininities and friendships through alcohol consumption in Newcastle,UK

Whilst women’s excessive alcohol consumption has traditionally been regarded as a potential threat to health, safety and even femininity, recent research highlights the important role that alcohol plays in many young women’s lives. Drawing on data from semi-structured interviews with women aged 18–25 in Newcastle, UK, this paper will consider the role that alcohol can play in the negotiation of female friendships in the Night Time Economy, highlighting the ways in which young women may regard alcohol as a tool to enhance socialising, trust and intimacy (both when pre-drinking and in bars, pubs and clubs). The role of alcohol in ‘doing’ gender and femininity will also be explored, as young women collectively display feminine identities through particular drinking choices and practices that may include heavy drinking and drunkenness. Finally, I will consider the implications for young women who do not engage in these collective practices of alcohol consumption and suggest avenues for future work on the under-researched topic of the experiences of non-drinkers.     

Drunkenness among young people: a cross-national comparison

OBJECTIVE: International studies show a rise in drunkenness among young people in recent years. In this study the number of drunkenness occasions among 15-year old students in 22 countries is reported. The cross-national association between drunkenness, on the one hand, and the frequency of alcohol intake and the preference for distilled spirits, on the other, is described. Variation between countries is examined on the basis of national characteristics, including national prevention policies. METHOD: Data on alcohol use were taken from the 1998 World Health Organization (WHO) collaborative, cross-national survey on Health Behaviour of School-Aged Children. The multinational representative sample consisted of 10,951 male and 11,451 female (drinking) students. County characteristics were derived from the WHO Global Alcohol Database. Hierarchical Generalized Linear Model was used to analyze the effects of country characteristics on individual drunkenness. RESULTS: The lifetime prevalence of drunkenness was 57.1% for males and 50.4% for females. The number of drunkenness occasions showed a significant variation in the 22 countries. The correlation between drunkenness and preference for distilled spirits was positive in 21 countries and strong (Spearman's p > 0.40) in some eastern countries. Geographic location turned out to be an important country-level association with drunkenness and its predictors. Southern European countries showed moderate associations, whereas strong associations were found in Scandinavia, the Baltic countries and Russia. CONCLUSIONS: Cultural differences in alcohol use exist, and frequency of alcohol intake and use of spirits influence drunkenness. Despite the potential influence of preventive policy measures on drunkenness, no preventive effect of the measures included in this study was found.     

Drinking motives,drinking restraint and drinking behaviour among young adults

Motives to drink alcohol are widely thought to be the proximal cognitive factors involved in the decision to consume alcohol beverages. However it has also been argued that the ability to restrain drinking may be a more proximal predictor of drinking behaviour. The current study aimed to examine the relationships between drinking motives, drinking restraint and both alcohol consumption and alcohol-related problems in a sample of young adults. A sample of 221 young adults (aged 17–34 years) completed self-report measures assessing drinking behaviour, motives for drinking and drinking restraint. Multiple regression analyses revealed that coping, enhancement and social motives were related to alcohol consumption and alcohol-related problems, while Cognitive and Emotional Preoccupation with drinking was related to all criterion variables. Further, the relationship between coping motives and drinking behaviour was mediated by preoccupation with drinking. The results are discussed in light of the roles of drinking motives and drinking restraint in risky drinking among young people, and implications for prevention and early intervention are presented.     

The unique contribution of attitudes toward non-alcoholic drinks to the prediction of adolescents' and young adults' alcohol consumption

Attitudes toward alternative behaviors, such as drinking soda instead of alcohol, might contribute to the prediction of young people's drinking behavior. The current study explored the associations between late adolescents' and young adults' attitudes toward alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks and their alcohol consumption, and whether these associations were moderated by participants' sex, age and education level. Cross-sectional data were collected among 1012 15 to 25-year-olds. Participants completed an online questionnaire on attitudes toward alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks, binge drinking and monthly alcohol consumption.     

Reports of alcohol consumption and alcohol-related problems among homosexual, bisexual and heterosexual respondents: results from the 2000 National Alcohol Survey

OBJECTIVE: Few population-based studies have explored differences in alcohol consumption by sexual orientation. This study examined the prevalence of abstinence, drinking, heavier drinking, alcohol-related problems, alcohol dependence and help-seeking among homosexual and bisexual women and men compared with heterosexuals. METHOD: Data are from the 2000 National Alcohol Survey, a national population-based survey of adults (N = 7,612), a Random Digit Dialing telephone survey of all 50 states of the United States and Washington, DC. Four categories of sexual orientation were created using questions on both sexual orientation self-identification and behavior: homosexual identified, bisexual identified, heterosexual identified with same sex partners and exclusively heterosexual. Five alcohol measures (past year) were used in the analyses: (1) mean number of drinks, (2) days consuming five or more drinks on a single occasion, (3) drunkenness, (4) negative social consequences (2 or more) and (5) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, alcohol dependence. A lifetime measure of help-seeking for an alcohol problem was also analyzed. RESULTS: Few significant differences were found among men by sexual orientation. By contrast, both lesbians and bisexual women had lower abstention rates and significantly greater odds of reporting alcohol-related social consequences, alcohol dependence and past help-seeking for an alcohol problem. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that alcohol dependence and alcohol-related consequences differ by sexual orientation, particularly among women. These findings also emphasize the need for the inclusion of sexual-orientation items in population-based surveys so that prevalence rates within these subgroups can be effectively monitored.     

Who drinks most of the alcohol in the US? The policy implications

OBJECTIVE: The concentration of alcohol consumption in the U.S. among the heaviest drinkers is analyzed with data from two recent probability samples of the adult population. METHOD: Pooled data from four national telephone surveys (N = 7,049; 4,784 drinkers) with uniform methodology are used for the primary analysis, and data from an in-person national household survey (N = 2,058; 1,308 drinkers) are used for confirmatory analysis. Each survey systematically measured self-reported alcohol consumption during the prior year using a "graduated frequencies" approach designed to capture drinking at a series of amount-per-day levels. RESULTS: The two studies produced very similar estimates: the top 2.5% of drinkers by volume account for 27% and 25% of the nation's total self-reported alcohol consumption in the telephone and in-person surveys, respectively; the top 5% account for 42% and 39%; and the top 20% of drinkers account for 89% and 87% in each survey, respectively. Men were overrepresented at the highest volumes, contributing about 76% of the country's total reported consumption. Similarly, young adults aged 18 to 29 are disproportionately represented in the heaviest drinking levels; constituting 27% of the population, they account for about 45% of overall adult drinking. CONCLUSIONS: The bulk of the alcohol reported drunk in the U.S. is consumed by a relatively small population of very heavy drinkers. Prevention policies implied by this concentration include strengthening of social norms discouraging heavy consumption, restricting marketing practices that target heavy drinkers, and implementing measures to reduce consumption by the heaviest drinkers.     

Re-configured pleasures: How young people feel good through abstaining or moderating their drinking

BackgroundAlcohol use has strong associations with the pursuit of pleasure, yet trends in young people's drinking have been declining in Australia for more than 15 years. Therefore, it is important to examine how the increasing number of young people who drink lightly or abstain think about pleasure and alcohol, and how this might reflect changing practices around drinking for pleasure.MethodsSemi-structured interviews were conducted with 50 young people aged 16–19 from Melbourne who abstained from alcohol or drank within Australian guidelines for risky drinking. Participants reflected on how they socialised whilst drinking lightly or without drinking at all, and how they experienced pleasure in this context. These responses were analysed thematically.ResultsFour key themes emerged; authenticity, intimacy, control, and vicarious pleasure. Some participants felt that by not drinking, they were enacting authentic or better versions of themselves, whilst developing a stronger sense of intimacy with their sober friends. Others described the displeasure of potentially losing control of their emotions and bodies in social situations and were able to instead experience enjoyment vicariously through their friends’ drinking.ConclusionDrinking has long been regarded as a way to build a connection with others, relax and feel a sense of pleasure. However, it is important to recognise that avoiding drinking and drunkenness provides an alternative means by which some young people pursue feelings of pleasure and enjoyment. In a time of declining drinking rates, participants here drew on notions of authenticity, intimacy, self-control, and vicarious enjoyment to construct light or non-drinking as a pleasurable pursuit, and a positive part of selfhood.     

Why are young people drinking less than earlier? Identifying and specifying social mechanisms with a pragmatist approach

Recent surveys have found a strong decrease in alcohol consumption among young people and this trend has been identified in European countries, Australia and North America. Previous research suggests that the decline in alcohol consumption may be explained by changes in parenting style, increased use of social media, changes in gender identities or a health and fitness trend. We use qualitative interviews with drinking and non-drinking young people from Sweden (N = 49) to explore in what way and in what kinds of contexts these explanations may hold true and how they alone or together may explain declining alcohol consumption among young people. By using the pragmatist approach, we pay attention to what kinds of concerns, habits, practices, situations and meanings our interviewees relate to adolescents' low alcohol consumption or decline in drinking. By analyzing these matters, we aim to specify the social mechanisms that have reduced adolescents' drinking. Our paper discovers social mechanisms similar to previous studies but also a few that have previously been overlooked. We propose that the cultural position of drinking may have changed among young people so that drinking has lost its unquestioned symbolic power as a rite of passage into adulthood. There is less peer pressure to drink and more room for competing activities. This opening of a homogeneous drinking culture to the acceptance of differences may function as a social mechanism that increases the success of other social mechanisms to reduce adolescents' drinking. Furthermore, the results of the paper suggest a hypothesis of the early maturation of young people as more individualized, responsible, reflective, and adult-like actors than in earlier generations. Overall, the paper provides hypotheses for future quantitative studies to examine the prevalence and distribution of the identified social mechanisms, as well as recommends directions for developing effective interventions to support young people's healthy lifestyle choices.     

Drinking practices,alcohol policy and prevention programmes in Japan

The purpose of this article is to outline alcohol consumption patterns and related problems, alcohol control policy and prevention programmes in Japan, which are not well-known in other countries. In Japan, per capita alcohol consumption is no longer increasing and has even started to decrease. At the same time, diversification of drinking populations has made a rapid progress. For the last several decades, alcohol consumption in non-traditional drinking populations, such as women and young people, has been on a steep rise. Consequently, in addition to traditional drinking problems observed among adult males, the magnitude of problems among these non-traditional populations has expanded. Alcohol policy and prevention programmes, however, have not developed to adequately control these problems. Availability of alcoholic beverages, including to underage populations, remains very high. Legislation related to alcohol control has not been well enforced, with the exception of the Road Traffic Law. Tax systems on alcoholic beverages are not relevant to the suppression of alcohol consumption. Moreover, there are virtually no restrictions on advertising or sponsorship and no provisions concerning an alcohol-free environment. Prevention programmes and activities to reduce harm from drinking have been carried out, especially for underage drinking, but they are insufficient to tackle the existing problems. Comprehensive discussions on alcohol policy and implementation of effective prevention programmes with participation of all sectors concerned are necessary, in parallel with actions taken by the WHO and other organisations.     

The problem of binge drinking among Italian university students: a preliminary investigation

Although binge drinking and excessive alcohol consumption are relevant public health problems in Italy, no research has been carried out on those topics for years. In the first months of the year 2005, 1000 undergraduates in a number of Italian universities were administered a survey regarding their attitudes in alcohol consumption. Participants were to complete a questionnaire including demographic and alcohol variables, the Sensation-Seeking Scale (SSSV) and the Positive Drinking Expectancy Scale (PDMS). According to previous research, students were categorized in non-drinkers, social, binge, and heavy drinkers. Results showed that the estimated percentage of binge drinking among university students is 32.9%. The survey revealed-by means of univariate and multivariate analysis-that social, binge, and heavy drinkers differ in terms of some drinking variables, in their expectancies about alcohol and in sensation-seeking dimensions. Implications for the prevention of binge drinking in young adults are currently under discussion even if further investigation into the Italian context is urgently needed.     

Alcohol warning labels formulated as questions change alcohol-related outcome expectancies: A pilot study

Alcohol consumption is a leading risk factor for major diseases, particularly among young adults who increasingly engage in binge drinking. Since positive outcome expectancies play a pivotal role in alcohol consumption, we designed alcohol warning labels tailored toward young adults’ outcome expectancies. The warnings were formulated as questions or as statements that were accompanied by a picture. We implemented the warning labels on young adults’ favorite alcohol beverages (beer and alcopops) and presented them in the laboratory. One-hundred twenty-two young adults participated in the study. One third of the sample received the warning labels in question form, one third in statement form, and the final third received no warning labels. We assessed general outcome expectancies, individual outcome expectancies derived from a pre-study, and drinking intentions. The results of this experiment revealed that warning labels presented as statements had no influence on individual and general outcome expectancies and drinking intentions. Warnings posed in the form of questions showed some effectiveness as they increased individual negative outcome expectancy perception. Although only partially effective, the warning labels seem promising for future research.     

Racial/Ethnic differences in the association between college attendance and heavy alcohol use: a national study

OBJECTIVE: This study examined racial/ethnic differences in the association between college attendance and heavy alcohol use and factors that may underlie this relationship. METHOD: Interview data collected from 12,993 young adults who participated in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health were analyzed to determine if 4- or 2-year college status is differentially associated with heavy alcohol use for five racial/ethnic groups (white, black, Hispanic, Asian, Other) and to assess the explanatory value of selected social and psychological factors. RESULTS: Four-year college status was positively associated with heavy alcohol use among white young adults but inversely related to heavy drinking among blacks and Asians. Two-year college status also was inversely associated with heavy drinking among blacks, Hispanics and Others. Among whites, the association between 4-year college attendance and heavy drinking was partially explained by living away from parents, friends' heavy drinking and time socializing with friends. Among blacks, the inverse relationship between college attendance and heavy alcohol use was partially explained by lower levels of friends' heavy drinking, depression and delinquency. Friends' heavy drinking also partially explained observed relationships between college attendance and heavy drinking among Asians and Others. CONCLUSIONS: Four-year college attendance increases the likelihood of heavy alcohol use among white young adults but may decrease the likelihood of heavy drinking among blacks and Asians. Two-year college attendance also may reduce the risk for heavy drinking among blacks, Hispanics and young adults who are Native American or multi-ethnic. Social and psychological factors partly explain these relationships and also differ for racial/ethnic groups.     

Beyond self-reports: drinking motives predict grams of consumed alcohol in wine-tasting sessions

The link between drinking motives and alcohol-related outcomes has been investigated extensively, yet almost exclusively using retrospective self-reports that are subject to recall bias. This study overcomes this limitation using an experimental design to test whether the 4 drinking-motive dimensions (social, enhancement, coping and conformity, as measured in the baseline questionnaire) predict the quantity of alcohol actually ingested during 2 wine-tasting sessions conducted approximately 3 and 7 weeks after the baseline motive assessment. Regression modeling was based on an analog measurement of grams of pure alcohol among 123 young adults. Self-reported data at baseline concurred with the data collected during the experimental sessions, that is, alcohol consumption was high for males and enhancement drinkers and low for conformity drinkers. Coping drinkers significantly increased their consumption between the first and second sessions, while social drinkers tended to decrease theirs. Yet when separately considering data recorded during the first session, none of the drinking motives predicted the amounts of alcohol actually consumed. To conclude, this study demonstrates that motives predict actual alcohol consumption, which is consistent with evidence-based self-reports. Particularly, enhancement and coping drinkers seem to take advantage of the drinking situation probably because they usually appreciate the psychoactive properties of alcohol, either to maximize pleasurable sensations or to alleviate negative ones. However, if the setting is unusual (first tasting session), situational characteristics may "overrule" the effect of personal motives.     

Beyond personality—Experimental investigations of the effects of personality traits on in situ alcohol consumption in social and solitary drinking contexts

Numerous studies have highlighted that personality traits are associated with alcohol problems and disorders; however, little is known on the link between personality and the quantities of alcohol actually ingested during given drinking episodes (i.e. in situ alcohol consumption, in grams of pure alcohol). Based on data of 123 young adults who participated in two wine-tasting assignments (one performed in group, the other individually; sequence of participation assigned at random), the results from regression models suggest that individual characteristics and personality traits are, to some extent, associated with in situ alcohol consumption, but contextual factors (e.g., in line with behavioral exposition and perceptions of norms) might overwhelm such associations in a social context, or later on in similar drinking contexts. These findings argue for the development of early preventive initiatives focusing on social influences and on specific drinking context.