伊贝沙坦对血管紧张素Ⅱ所致心肌细胞蛋白质合成和肌球蛋白重链表达的影响

目的 观察伊贝沙坦对血管紧张素Ⅱ(AngⅡ)所致心肌细胞中蛋白质合成速率及肌球蛋白重链(MHC)基因表达改变的影响.方法 以AngⅡ及伊贝沙坦分别或同时作用于培养的细胞.采用放射性同位素[3H]-leu掺入法检测培养心肌细胞蛋白质合成速率.应用荧光定量PCR方法检测心肌细胞心房利钠肽因子(ANF)以及α-MHC、β-MHC的表达.结果 AngⅡ处理使心肌细胞中[3H]-Leu掺人增加(P＜0.05),同时ANF mRNA的表达明显高于正常(P＜0.05);α-MHC mRNA的表达显著低于正常(P＜0.05),而β-MHC mRNA的表达显著高于正常(P＜0.05),α-MHC/β-MHC的比值下降(P＜0.05).当伊贝沙坦与AngⅡ共同作用于培养的心肌细胞时,与AngⅡ组比较,[3H]-Leu的掺入明显下降(P＜0.05),与正常组比无统计学意义(P＞0.05);同时ANF的表达下降,与正常组比无统计学意义(P＞0.05);心肌细胞中α-MHC的表达明显增高(P＜0.05),而β-MHCmRNA的表达显著降低(P＜0.05),α-MHC/β-MHC的比值上升(P＜0.05).结论 伊贝沙坦能抑制AngⅡ所致的心肌细胞肥大和细胞中α-MHC向β-MHC表达的转换.     

丙戊酸抑制血管紧张素Ⅱ致大鼠心肌细胞肥大

目的 探讨丙戊酸在血管紧张素Ⅱ（AngⅡ）致心肌细胞肥大过程中的抑制作用。方法 常规方法培养大鼠原代心肌细胞,分为3组：对照组、肥大组、丙戊酸组。利用AngⅡ刺激心肌细胞造成肥大模型,并给予丙戊酸进行干预。反转录聚合酶链反应观察β-肌球蛋白重链（β-MHC）mRNA表达;相差显微镜和电镜观察心肌细胞的表面积和超微结构变化;免疫组织化学法检测c-fos蛋白的表达。结果 原代心肌细胞在AngⅡ作用下表面积增加,超微结构发生改变;β-MHC mRNA和c-fos蛋白表达增加（P < 0.05）。给予丙戊酸干预后,上述变化显著缓解（P < 0.05）。结论 丙戊酸抑制AngⅡ刺激引起的心肌细胞肥大,为临床上治疗心肌肥厚提供一条新的思路。     

甲状腺素对Ang Ⅱ所致心肌细胞肌球蛋白重链基因表达改变的影响及其机制

目的:观察甲状腺素对血管紧张素Ⅱ(AngⅡ)所致心肌细胞中DNA和蛋白质合成速率及肌球蛋白重链(MHC)基因表达改变的影响,并探讨其可能机制。方法:以AngⅡ及三碘甲状腺素原氨酸(triiodothyronine,T₃)分别或同时作用于培养的细胞。通过测定[³H]-TdR和[³H]-Leu掺入来了解细胞中DNA及蛋白质的合速成率;用RT-PCR的方法检测细胞中α和β-MHCmRNA的表达;PepTag非放射性的PKC活性检测试剂盒对细胞中PKC活性进行检测。结果:AngⅡ处理使心肌细胞中[³H]-Leu掺入增加,[³H]-TdR的掺入率保持不变;α-MHCmRNA的表达显著低于正常,而β-MHCmRNA的含量明显高于正常;同时细胞中PKC活性亦显著高于正常。当T3与AngⅡ组共同作用于培养的心肌细胞时,与AngⅡ组相比,[³H]-Leu的掺入增加并没有发生改变,但是,心肌细胞中α-MHCmRNA的表达明显增高,而β-MHCmRNA的含量却显著降低;同时细胞中PKC的活性也显著降低。结论:T3能抑制AngⅡ所致的心肌细胞中肌球蛋白基因的转换,其机制可能与T₃对细胞中PKC活性的影响有关。     

17β-雌二醇对培养的乳鼠心肌细胞肥大的影响

目的观测17β-雌二醇（17β-estradiol，E2）对肾上腺素（PE）诱导的乳鼠心肌细胞肥大的影响并探讨其机制。方法以培养的乳鼠心肌细胞为模型并分组给药，用计算机图像分析软件测量心肌细胞表面积，[^3H]标记亮氨酸掺入法测定心肌细胞蛋白质合成速率，免疫细胞化学方法检测心肌细胞原癌基因c-fos蛋白表达，半定量RT-PCR检测心肌细胞肥大特征性胚胎型基因β-肌球蛋白重链（pMHC）、α-骨骼肌肌动蛋白（α-skA）和心房肽（ANP）的mRNA表达。结果17β-雌二醇明显抑制肾上腺素诱导的心肌细胞表面积和蛋白质合成速率的增加；17β-雌二醇减弱肥大心肌细胞c-fos蛋白表达；17β-雌二醇降低pMHC、α-skA的mRNA表达，但增加ANPmRNA表达。结论17β-雌二醇可抑制心肌细胞肥大，其作用机制可能与抑制原癌基因c-fos的蛋白表达，逆转收缩蛋白基因（β-MHC和α-skA）向胚胎型转化及促进ANPmRNA表达有关。     

细胞内钙信号对锌指转录因子及胚心标志基因的调控

目的：探讨心肌细胞内游离钙离子浓度（［Ca2+］i）变化对锌指转录因子及胚心标志基因的影响。 方法: 以原代培养的乳鼠心肌细胞为模型，血管紧张素Ⅱ（AngⅡ）及雷尼丁(RY)剌激心肌细胞跨膜钙内流及细胞内钙释放; Fura-2/AM比率荧光成像系统分析细胞内钙信号；免疫印迹(Western blotting)检测心肌细胞钙调神经磷酸酶(CaN)、活化T细胞核因子（NFAT3）、锌指转录因子（GATA4）、α-actin蛋白表达，RT-PCR 检测心肌球蛋白重链（β-MHC）mRNA表达。 结果: AngⅡ及RY均可使心肌细胞内［Ca2+］i增加，与对照组相比差异显著（P<0.01）。AngⅡ、RY刺激1、3 d，心肌细胞CaN、NFAT3、GATA4、α-actin蛋白表达及β-MHC mRNA表达明显高于对照组(P<0.05或P<0.01)。 结论: 细胞内钙信号的变化可能通过影响CaN及ERK信号通路，增加心肌细胞胚心标志基因的表达,在心肌细胞肥大的病理过程中起重要作用。     

miR-520a-5p靶向TGR5调控H9c2细胞中高糖引起的心肌肥大

目的 探讨高糖引起H9c2细胞心肌肥大的潜在机制.方法 通过高糖处理H9c2细胞后,检测其表面积大小以及心脏肥大标志物ANP,BNP,β-MHC的表达水平.通过高通量测序检测高糖处理H9c2细胞表达的差异miRNA.过表达差异miRNA后检测心脏肥大标志物ANP的表达水平.通过miRDB在线分析miRNA的潜在底物.结果 高糖可使心肌细胞H9c2的大小增加(P＜0.05)、表面积增加(P＜0.05).高糖处理后,心脏肥大标志物ANP,BNP,β-MHC的表达水平均上升(P＜0.05).敲低miR-520a-5p后,心脏肥大标志物ANP,BNP,β-MHC的表达水平均下降(P＜0.05)、心肌细胞H9c2表面积减少(P＜0.05).过表达miR-520a-5p后,心脏肥大标志物ANP,BNP,β-MHC的表达水平均上升(P＜0.05)、心肌细胞H9c2表面积增加(P＜0.05).miR-520a-5p靶向TGR5的3端非编码区(P＜0.05).过表达miR-520a-5p后,TGR5表达水平下降.敲低TGR5后,TGR5表达水平上升.敲低TGR5后,心脏肥大标志物ANP,BNP,β-MHC的表达水平均上升(P＜0.05)、心肌细胞H9c2表面积增加(P＜0.05).过表达TGR5后,心脏肥大标志物ANP,BNP,β-MHC的表达水平均下降(P＜0.05)、心肌细胞H9c2表面积减少(P＜0.05).结论 高糖处理后,miR-520a-5p的表达水平上升,miR-520a-5p通过靶向TGR5 mRNA的3端非编码区后降解了TGR5 mRNA,降低了TGR5的蛋白水平,随后引起了H9c2细胞的心肌肥大.     

促红细胞生成素抑制Ang Ⅱ诱导的大鼠心肌细胞肥大及其可能的信号通路

目的观察促红细胞生成素(EPO)对新生大鼠心肌细胞肥大中信号通路蛋白表达的影响。方法用血管紧张素Ⅱ(AngⅡ,10-6mol/L)诱导心肌细胞肥大,分别以EPO(2×104U/L)或/和P38丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(MAPK)抑制剂SB203580(15μmol/L)进行干预,检测心肌细胞表面积、蛋白合成、胚胎基因ANF及β-MHC表达,Real-timeQ-PCR检测转化生长因子β(TGF-β)1及P38MAPK mRNA表达;Western blot法检测TGF-β1、TGF-β激活性激酶1(TAK1)、phospho-TAK1、P38MAPK和phospho-P38MAPK蛋白的表达。结果 EPO能有效抑制AngⅡ诱导的心肌细胞肥大(P0.05),抑制TGF-β1、TAK1、phospho-TAK1、P38MAPK和phospho-P38MAPK表达(P0.05);SB203580能增强EPO抑制心肌细胞肥大的作用。结论 EPO能减轻AngⅡ诱导的心肌细胞肥大,其可能与TGF-β1-TAK1-P38 MAPK信号通路有关。     

钙调神经磷酸酶在血管紧张素Ⅱ刺激的大鼠心肌细胞肥大中的作用及其活性调节

目的:观察钙调神经磷酸酶(CaN)在血管紧张素Ⅱ(AngⅡ)刺激的大鼠心肌细胞肥大中的作用及其活性调节.方法:建立AngⅡ诱导的大鼠心肌细胞肥大模型,观察CaN抑制剂对AngⅡ刺激的心肌细胞[3H]-亮氨酸掺入的影响,以及各种因素对心肌细胞CaN酶活性的影响.结果:10、 100、 1000 nmol·L-1的AngⅡ作用12 h分别使心肌细胞的CaN活性增加了13%、 57%(P＜0.05)、 228%(P＜0.01).AngⅡ(10 nmol·L-1)刺激心肌细胞2 h内,CaN活性与对照组无明显差异(P＜0.05);AngⅡ刺激心肌细胞12 h以上,CaN活性才明显增高(P＜0.05).Losartan(50 μmol·L-1)、H7(50 μmol·L-1)及Fura-2/AM(4 μmol·L-1)可明显抑制AngⅡ刺激的心肌细胞CaN活性;而PD98059(50 μmol·L-1)对AngⅡ刺激的心肌细胞CaN活性无明显影响.AngⅡ(10-7mol/L)刺激的大鼠心肌细胞[3H]-亮氨酸掺入明显高于对照组(P＜0.01),而CaN特异性抑制剂-环孢素A(0.5～5 μg/mL)可以明显抑制AngⅡ刺激的心肌细胞[3H]-亮氨酸掺入.结论:依赖Ca2+/CaM活化的CaN可能在AngⅡ刺激的心肌细胞肥大中起重要作用;CaN的活化可能有赖于胞内Ca2+水平的持续升高,另外,CaN的活性还可能受到蛋白激酶C等信号分子的磷酸化调节.     

PARP-2在大鼠心肌肥大中的作用

目的:在细胞和整体水平研究多聚腺苷酸二磷酸核糖基聚合酶2(PARP-2)在心肌肥大过程中表达的变化规律以及PARP-2对心肌肥大的调控作用。方法:健康雄性SD大鼠采用腹主动脉缩窄法(AAC)建立心肌肥大动物模型,采用real-time PCR和Western blot检测PARP-2的mRNA和蛋白表达变化;使用PARP-2特异性的siRNA干扰序列来处理细胞后,通过检测心肌细胞表面积及ANF、BNP和β-MHC的mRNA表达变化来作为评判心肌细胞肥大状况。结果:AAC大鼠心脏组织中PARP-2的蛋白和mRNA表达均显著上调;在AngⅡ诱导的心肌细胞肥大模型中,AngⅡ能时间和剂量依赖性地上调PARP-2的mRNA和蛋白表达;用siRNA干扰序列沉默PARP-2能够逆转AngⅡ所诱导心肌细胞的肥大。结论:在AngⅡ诱导的心肌细胞肥大的体外模型和腹主动脉缩窄诱导的心肌肥大动物的体内模型中,PARP-2的mRNA和蛋白水平均显著上调;特异性沉默PARP-2能够抑制AngⅡ诱导的心肌细胞肥大。     

阿托伐他汀对AngⅡ诱导大鼠心肌肥大的抑制作用及对TLR4基因表达的影响

目的： 探讨阿托伐他汀(atorvastatin)对血管紧张素Ⅱ(AngⅡ)诱导的大鼠心肌细胞（CM）肥大的抑制作用及对TLR4基因表达的影响，旨在探索他汀类药物对心肌肥大抑制作用的可能机制。方法: 采用胰酶消化、差速贴壁法培养新生SD大鼠CM，应用考马斯亮蓝法测定CM蛋白含量、RT-PCR分别检测心肌肌球蛋白重链β-MHC、AT₁受体和TLR4 mRNA表达。结果: ① AngⅡ可使CM蛋白含量及β-MHC mRNA表达明显增加，并能够上调AT₁ mRNA和TLR4 mRNA表达。② Ator呈浓度依赖性抑制由AngⅡ诱导的CM蛋白含量及β-MHC mRNA表达的增加。③ Ator呈浓度依赖性下调由AngⅡ诱导的肥大CM AT₁ mRNA和TLR4 mRNA表达。结论: 阿托伐他汀可部分抑制CM肥大的发生，下调AT₁ mRNA和TLR4 mRNA表达是其作用机制之一。     

Renal dysplasia and asplenia in two sibs

A family is reported in which two sibs, one male and the other female, both died within 24 hours of birth with enlarged polycystic kidneys. Postmortem histology in the second child showed gross renal dysplasia. In both children the pancreas was enlarged, nodular and cystic but the liver appeared macroscopically normal. In the second child, histological examination confirmed pancreatic fibrosis with cystic dilation of ducts, but showed portal fibrosis with bile duct proliferation in the liver.
This combination of findings is very reminiscent of those in a girl and her brother reported by Ivemark et al. (1959). The children reported here also showed absence or hypoplasia of the spleen, cardiac anomalies and other features of the Ivemark syndrome (Ivemark 1955), a quite different, usually sporadic, congenital disorder. It is suggested that the children described here have a distinct lethal congenital disorder, probably inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.     

Schizophrenia in a North Swedish geographical isolate, 1900–1977. Epidemiology, genetics and biochemistry

Over 200 schizophrenic patients belonging to three major and interrelated pedigree complexes have been investigated over the past 30 years in a North Swedish geographically isolated population, presently numbering about 6,000. An intensive investigation of a number of biochemical correlates and genetic markers in a few selected families belonging to one of the major pedigrees has indicated new strategies for the current research program.
Schizophrenia, as defined operationally, is significantly associated with decreased activities of two enzymes (1) blood platelet monoamine oxidase, (2) plasma dopamine-β-hydroxylase, and (3) with the genetic marker Gc² (group specific antigen). Both enzymes are subject to genetic variation. A positive score for linkage between schizophrenia and low plasma DBH activity has been calculated, but, so far, available data are insufficient for discrimination between linkage and partial contribution of genetically controlled low plasma DBH to the pathogenesis of the disease. Alternatively, both mechanisms could be involved.
As a model for continued research, schizophrenia is explained as based on a double dominant-recessive genotype (Aabb), representing a vulnerability which in about 50 % of cases develops into clinical schizophrenia. It is suggested that the dominant mutation (A) operates on or affects MAO activity, and that the recessive genotype (bb) is instrumental in low variates of DBH activity and very likely such variates within the normal range of physiological variation. Moreover, it is suggested that the combined effects of MAO- and DBH-reduced efficiency on the metabolism of e.g. dopamine could be an essential pathogenic mechanism for the schizophrenic illness which is segregating in this population.     

What will studies of Fulani individuals naturally exposed to malaria teach us about protective immunity to malaria?

There are an estimated over 200 million yearly cases of malaria worldwide. Despite concerted international effort to combat the disease, it still causes approximately half a million deaths every year, the majority of which are young children with Plasmodium falciparum infection in sub-Saharan Africa. Successes are largely attributed to malaria prevention strategies, such as insecticide-treated mosquito nets and indoor spraying, as well as improved access to existing treatments. One important hurdle to new approaches for the treatment and prevention of malaria is our limited understanding of the biology of Plasmodium infection and its complex interaction with the immune system of its human host. Therefore, the elimination of malaria in Africa not only relies on existing tools to reduce malaria burden, but also requires fundamental research to develop innovative approaches. Here, we summarize our discoveries from investigations of ethnic groups of West Africa who have different susceptibility to malaria.     

The universal muscular chain reaction,muscle spasm,Torsions, ruptures and extravasations. Chameleons of pathology and some manifestations of simple muscular disorders

Most bodily functions require the coordinated actions of complementary and supplementary paired muscle groups. Where this essential muscular cooperation is lacking, hollow organs may burst and others become literally screwed up, giving rise to many similar spastic diseases such as Torticollis, Twisted ovarian cyst, Torsion of the Testis, Volvulus of the intestines, Varicose Veins, Megacolon, Aortamegaly, Scoliosis, Erb's Palsy, Peyronie's Disease, Main-en-Griffe, Undescended Foot (Pes Cavus), Talipes, Strabismus. Spasm is “panenepidemic” and unclassified examples of Torsion Dystonia and Dyskinesia really are as common as debt and taxes.     

The dominant diseases of modernized societies as omega-3 essential fatty acid deficiency syndrome: Substrate beriberi

About 1900, modern food selection and processing caused widespread $\text{epidemics}$ of the B vitamin deficiency diseases of beriberi and pellagra which, for genetic reasons, often expressed as different diseases ranging from bowel and heart disease to dermatoses and psychoses. But the B vitamins merely help convert essential fatty acids (EFA) into the prostaglandin (PG) tissue regulators and it now turns out that, through hydrogenation, milling and selection of w3-poor southern foods, we have also been systematically depleting, by as much as 90%, a newly discovered trace Nordic EFA (w3) of special importance to primates and sole precursor of the PG3(4) series, even as a concurrent fiber deficiency increases body demand for EFA. Since substrate EFA is processed by many B vitamin catalysts, an EFA deficiency will mimic a $\text{panh}$ypovitaminosis B, i.e., a mixture of $\text{substrate}$ beriberi and $\text{substrate}$ pellagra resembling vitamin beriberi and pellagra but exhibiting as even more diverse $\text{endemic}$ disease. This would consitute a second stage of the Modern Malnutrition and explain why some workers now hold the dominant diseases of modermized societies to be new, nutritionally based, pellagraform yet lipid-related and to range, once again, from heart disease to psychosis. It is an assumption that our dominant diseases are unrelated to each other or are merely revealed by our diagnostic acumen and therapeutic success; and that hydrogenating millions of tons of food oils annually, to destroy the rancidity producing w3-EFA, is safe for $\text{primates}$. Extensive beriberiform disease is reported here in 32 typical cases taken from medical practice which responds strikingly to linseed oil supplements (60% w3-EFA) in confirmation of identical results in Capuchins.     

Hypo- und Hypermagnesämie aus kardiologischer Sicht

Zusammenfassung Eine Reihe pathologischer Zustände bedingen Magnesiummangel. Zustände mit Hypermagnesämie sind ebenfalls bekannt, doch wesentlich seltener. Für den Kardiologen beachtenswert ist, daß unter Therapie mit bestimmten Diuretica bei Herzinsuffizienz, bei Herzinfarkt, Kardiomyopathie, Digitalisintoxikation und bestimmten Herzrhythmusstörungen Hypomagnesämie beobachtet wurde. Leider kann in der klinischen Routine nur ein extracelluläres Magnesiumdefizit durch Serumbestimmungen gemessen werden; über Magnesiummangel einzelner Organe kann nichts ausgesagt werden. Hinweise für Magnesiummangel geben aber neben der Messung des Serumspiegels Anamnese, klinischer Befund, bestimmte EKG-Veränderungen wie auch evtl. Hypokalämie, ein Zustand, bei dem sich oft — besonders bei Aldosteronismus — parallele Veränderungen zeigten.Tierexperimente deuten darauf hin, daß infarktähnliche Läsionen unter Magnesiummangel entstehen, doch ob Herzinfarkt beim Menschen durch Magnesiummangel ausgelöst werden kann, ist noch ungeklärt. In Leichenherzen zeigte sich im Infarktgebiet neben Calciumakkumulation signifikanter Magnesiumverlust, wobei unklar blieb, ob sich Ursache oder Folge des Infarktes widerspiegelten. Falls ein ursächlicher Zusammenhang besteht, ist er im Myokardstoffwechsel selbst zu suchen, wie bei der Alkoholkardiomyopathie, wo myokardialer Magnesiummangel zumindest als pathogenetischer Teilfaktor anerkannt wird. Andererseits versucht man aber auch Beziehungen zwischen Atherosklerose, Blutgerinnung und Hypomagnesämie herzustellen, in der Meinung, daß Magnesiummangel auch über den coronaren Pathomechanismus des Herzinfarktes wirken könnte. Sicher scheint, daß gewisse EKG-Veränderungen und Herzrhythmusstörungen durch einen irritierten Magnesiumhaushalt bedingt sein können, da sie bei Gabe bzw. Entzug von Magnesium verschwinden. Daß Magnesiummangel die Glykosidtoleranz verringert, wird tierexperimentell bestätigt. Unter Hypomagnesämie bewirkt Acetylstrophanthidin eher und länger Rhythmusstörungen als ohne, außerdem lassen diese sich durch Magnesiumgaben eliminieren. Da in gewissen Fällen spontane und digitalisinduzierte Herzrythmusstörungen durch Magnesiuminjektionen beseitigt wurden, scheint Magnesium als Therapeuticum angebracht. Einsatz verschiedener Magnesiumsalze bei Angina pectoris, degenerativen Herzerkrankungen und Herzinsuffizienz ohne geprüften und offensichtlich gestörten Magnesiumhaushalt ist fragwürdig, weil keine eindeutigen klinischen Erfolgsbeweise vorliegen. Immerhin mag es aber larvierte, durch Serumbestimmungen nicht erfaßbare Mangelzustände geben. Allgemein erscheint es aus kardiologischer Sicht ratsam, den Magnesiumhaushalt zu überwachen und in entsprechenden Fällen auszugleichen, um möglichen Myokardläsionen oder fatalen Herzrhythmusstörungen entgegenzuwirken.     

Environmental risk factors and their role in the management of atopic dermatitis

Introduction: The etiology of atopic dermatitis (AD) is multifactorial with interaction between genetics, immune and environmental factors.

Areas covered: We review the role of prenatal exposures, irritants and pruritogens, pathogens, climate factors, including temperature, humidity, ultraviolet radiation, outdoor and indoor air pollutants, tobacco smoke exposure, water hardness, urban vs. rural living, diet, breastfeeding, probiotics and prebiotics on AD.

Expert commentary: The increased global prevalence of AD cannot be attributed to genetics alone, suggesting that evolving environmental exposures may trigger and/or flare disease in predisposed individuals. There is a complex interplay between different environmental factors, including individual use of personal care products and exposure to climate, pollution, food and other exogenous factors. Understanding these complex risk factors is crucial to developing targeted interventions to prevent the disease in millions. Moreover, patients require counseling on optimal regimens for minimization of exposure to irritants and pruritogens and other harmful exposures.     

Class II HLA in Georgia Caucasus Tbilisi Georgians and their Mediterranean ancestry: The Usko Mediterranean languages

Georgia (or Sakartvelo in its own language) is a South Caucasus Mts. country with its easternmost part is enigmatically named Iberia, like the Iberian Peninsula, which may refer to rivers “Kura” and “Ebro” or their valleys respectively. Most of their inhabitants speak Georgian which is included within Dene-Caucasian group and Usko-Mediterranean subgroup of languages. The latter includes Basque, Berber, ancient Iberian-Tartessian, Etruscan, Hittite, Minoan Lineal A and others. In the present paper, HLA class II -DRB1 and -DQB1 alleles has been studied and extended haplotypes calculated. Most frequent haplotypes are also of Mediterranean origin (i. e.: (A*02-B*51)-DRB1*11:01-DQB1*03:01, (A*02-B*51)-DRB1*13:01-DQB1*06:03, or (A*24-B*35)-DRB1*01:01-DQB1*05:01) and DA genetic distances show that closest world populations to Georgians are Mediterraneans. Georgians also show common extended haplotypes ((A*02-B*51)-DRB1*11:01-DQB1*03:01, (A*02-B*13)-DRB1*07:01-DQB1*02:01 and (A*03-B*35)-DRB1*11:01-DQB1*03:01) with Svan people, a secluded population in North Georgia mountains. We can conclude that Georgians belong to a very old Mediterranean substratum according to both linguistics (Usko Mediterranean languages) and HLA genetics.     

'Very sore nights and days': the child's experience of illness in early modern England, c.1580-1720

Sick children were ubiquitous in early modern England, and yet they have received very little attention from historians. Taking the elusive perspective of the child, this article explores the physical, emotional, and spiritual experience of illness in England between approximately 1580 and 1720. What was it like being ill and suffering pain? How did the young respond emotionally to the anticipation of death? It is argued that children’s experiences were characterised by profound ambivalence: illness could be terrifying and distressing, but also a source of emotional and spiritual fulfilment and joy. This interpretation challenges the common assumption amongst medical historians that the experiences of early modern patients were utterly miserable. It also sheds light on children’s emotional feelings for their parents, a subject often overlooked in the historiography of childhood. The primary sources used in this article include diaries, autobiographies, letters, the biographies of pious children, printed possession cases, doctors’ casebooks, and theological treatises concerning the afterlife.