Are Autism Spectrum Disorder and Asexuality Connected?

Asexuality is a lack of sexual attraction to any gender. There is some evidence to suggest that many self-identified asexuals have a formal diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder which is characterized by deficits in social interaction and communication, as well as by restricted and repetitive interests and behaviors. Additionally, the literature shows that asexuality and lack of sexual attraction or low sexual interest is overrepresented in people with autism spectrum disorder compared with neurotypical samples. Nevertheless, no studies have been conducted to investigate the relationship between autism and asexuality in depth. We conducted a systematic review of the literature to examine whether asexuality and autism spectrum disorder are connected. We conclude that asexuality and autism share various aspects, such as a possible role of prenatal factors, reference to romantic dimensions of sexual attraction and sexual orientation, and non-partner-oriented sexual desire, but future research should explore and clarify this link.

     

Theoretical Issues in the Study of Asexuality

Academic interest in asexual people is new and researchers are beginning to discuss how to proceed methodologically and conceptually with the study of asexuality. This article explores several of the theoretical issues related to the study of asexuality. Researchers have tended to treat asexuality either as a distinct sexual orientation or as a lack of sexual orientation. Difficulties arise when asexual participants are inconsistent in their self-identification as asexual. Distinguishing between sexual and romantic attraction resolves this confusion, while simultaneously calling into question conceptualizations of the asexual population as a single homogenous group. Arguments are considered in favor of exploring diversity within the asexual population, particularly with respect to gender and romantic orientation, proposing that the categorical constructs employed in (a)sexuality research be replaced with continuous ones. Furthermore, given the recently noted bias toward including only self-identified asexuals, as opposed to non-self-identified asexuals or “potential-asexuals,” in research about asexuality, the nature and meaning of asexual self-identification are discussed. Particular attention is paid to the theoretical importance of acknowledging asexual self-identification or lack thereof in future research into asexuality. This article discusses what these current theoretical issues mean for the study of asexuality and sexuality more generally, including a brief consideration of ethical implications for research with asexual participants. Finally, directions for future research are suggested.     

Sexuality,Sexual Behavior,and Relationships of Asexual Individuals: Differences Between Aromantic and Romantic Orientation

Asexuality is a complex construct with a considerable lack of research until recently. Building upon available findings, we examined the extent to which romantic orientation shapes individual and relationship experiences, and expectations of asexual individuals. Specifically, our research focused on the distinction between romantic asexual individuals, who experience romantic attraction, and aromantic asexual individuals, who do not experience romantic attraction. A cross-sectional study with members of different asexual online communities (N?=?447, 55.02% women; M_age?=?24.77 years, SD?=?7.21) aimed at examining how both groups differ in their identification with the asexuality construct as measured by the Asexuality Identification Scale (Yule et al., 2017), individual perspectives on sexuality, sexual behavior and relationships, concerns about commitment and sexual performance in a relationship, and attachment style. Results showed that aromantic asexual individuals identified more with asexuality, reported a more avoidant attachment style, and were more concerned with relationship commitment. In contrast, romantic asexual individuals reported less sex aversion, more sexual experiences (both past and current), and more sexual partners in the past. These individuals also engaged in romantic relationships more frequently in the past, had a stronger desire to engage in a romantic relationship in future (either with or without sexual intimacy), and were more concerned with sexual performance. Overall, our findings contribute to the literature by highlighting the need to consider romantic orientation when examining asexuality and its interpersonal outcomes.

     

Asexual Identity,Personality, and Social Motivations in a New Zealand National Sample

Growing research interest in asexuality has led to several notable findings around the differences between asexual people and those with other sexual orientations. These findings have recently extended to personality, but questions remain around differences in personality between asexual people and others. Furthermore, qualitative and quantitative research disagrees about whether asexual people are less interested in close relationships than others. This paper used data from a nationally representative sample of self-identified asexual participants (Analysis 1: n_women?=?216, n_men?=?54, n_{gender diverse}?=?13; Analysis 2: n_women?=?53, n_men?=?19, n_{gender diverse}?=?3) and matched samples of heterosexual and lesbian, gay, and bisexual/plurisexual (LGB) participants (N’s?=?75–283) drawn from the New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study (Ns?=?19,396–54,183) to explore personality (Analysis 1) and approach and avoidance social motivations (Analysis 2). Compared to heterosexuals, asexual participants reported significantly lower extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, and higher emotionality, openness, and honesty-humility. Compared to those who identified as LGB, asexual participants reported significantly lower extraversion and agreeableness and higher honesty-humility. In addition, asexual participants scored significantly lower on approach (but not avoidance) social motivation than both heterosexual and LGB participants, indicating that they are less motivated to enhance positive experiences and behavior in their social relationships. These results help to clarify how personality and social motivations covary with sexual identity.

     

Asexuality: A Mixed-Methods Approach

Current definitions of asexuality focus on sexual attraction, sexual behavior, and lack of sexual orientation or sexual excitation; however, the extent to which these definitions are accepted by self-identified asexuals is unknown. The goal of Study 1 was to examine relationship characteristics, frequency of sexual behaviors, sexual difficulties and distress, psychopathology, interpersonal functioning, and alexithymia in 187 asexuals recruited from the Asexuality Visibility and Education Network (AVEN). Asexual men (n = 54) and women (n = 133) completed validated questionnaires online. Sexual response was lower than normative data and was not experienced as distressing, and masturbation frequency in males was similar to available data for sexual men. Social withdrawal was the most elevated personality subscale; however, interpersonal functioning was in the normal range. Alexithymia was elevated in 12%. Social desirability was also in the normal range. Study 2 was designed to expand upon these quantitative findings with 15 asexuals from Study 1 through in-depth telephone interviews. The findings suggest that asexuality is best conceptualized as a lack of sexual attraction; however, asexuals varied greatly in their experience of sexual response and behavior. Asexuals partnered with sexuals acknowledged having to “negotiate” sexual activity. There were not higher rates of psychopathology among asexuals; however, a subset might fit the criteria for Schizoid Personality Disorder. There was also strong opposition to viewing asexuality as an extreme case of sexual desire disorder. Finally, asexuals were very motivated to liaise with sex researchers to further the scientific study of asexuality.     

Asexuality: Classification and Characterization

The term "asexual" has been defined in many different ways and asexuality has received very little research attention. In a small qualitative study (N = 4), individuals who self-identified as asexual were interviewed to help formulate hypotheses for a larger study. The second larger study was an online survey drawn from a convenience sample designed to better characterize asexuality and to test predictors of asexual identity. A convenience sample of 1,146 individuals (N = 41 self-identified asexual) completed online questionnaires assessing sexual history, sexual inhibition and excitation, sexual desire, and an open-response questionnaire concerning asexual identity. Asexuals reported significantly less desire for sex with a partner, lower sexual arousability, and lower sexual excitation but did not differ consistently from non-asexuals in their sexual inhibition scores or their desire to masturbate. Content analyses supported the idea that low sexual desire is the primary feature predicting asexual identity.     

The Self-Identification,LGBTQ+ Identity Development,and Attraction and Behavior of Asexual Youth: Potential Implications for Sexual Health and Internet-Based Service Provision

While often included in the spectrum of sexual minority identities, asexuality receives comparatively little attention. Awareness and understanding remains limited, and knowledge has been generated primarily from adult populations. This paper employs a sample of 711 self-identified asexual youth (aged 14–24, M?=?17.43 years) who identified as members of the LGBTQ+?community to consider the implications of a number of different areas for service provision. Two-thirds (66.8%) of participants identified as gender minorities within the spectrum of transgender and non-binary identities. Findings include aspects of participants’ LGBTQ+?developmental processes, including that only 14.3% had disclosed their LGBTQ+?status to everyone in their lives. However, just 2.4% had disclosed to no one. Their attraction and sexual activity were also explored, with 27.1% having never experienced any kind of romantic or sexual attraction and 20.6% having ever been sexually active. Findings regarding participants’ accessing of LGBTQ+?health information and engagement in a range of offline and online LGBTQ+?community activities are also provided. Participants acquired more health information online than offline—including sexual health information. Recommendations for service provision, particularly implications for sexual health and Internet-based services, are discussed.

     

Biological Markers of Asexuality: Handedness, Birth Order, and Finger Length Ratios in Self-identified Asexual Men and Women

Human asexuality is defined as a lack of sexual attraction to anyone or anything and it has been suggested that it may be best conceptualized as a sexual orientation. Non-right-handedness, fraternal birth order, and finger length ratio (2D:4D) are early neurodevelopmental markers associated with sexual orientation. We conducted an Internet study investigating the relationship between self-identification as asexual, handedness, number of older siblings, and self-measured finger-lengths in comparison to individuals of other sexual orientation groups. A total of 325 asexuals (60 men and 265 women; M age, 24.8 years), 690 heterosexuals (190 men and 500 women; M age, 23.5 years), and 268 non-heterosexuals (homosexual and bisexual; 64 men and 204 women; M age, 29.0 years) completed online questionnaires. Asexual men and women were 2.4 and 2.5 times, respectively, more likely to be non-right-handed than their heterosexual counterparts and there were significant differences between sexual orientation groups in number of older brothers and older sisters, and this depended on handedness. Asexual and non-heterosexual men were more likely to be later-born than heterosexual men, and asexual women were more likely to be earlier-born than non-heterosexual women. We found no significant differences between sexual orientation groups on measurements of 2D:4D ratio. This is one of the first studies to test and provide preliminary empirical support for an underlying neurodevelopmental basis to account for the lack of sexual attraction characteristic of asexuality.     

Physiological and Subjective Sexual Arousal in Self-Identified Asexual Women

Asexuality can be defined as a lifelong lack of sexual attraction. Empirical research on asexuality reveals significantly lower self-reported sexual desire and arousal and lower rates of sexual activity; however, the speculation that there may also be an impaired psychophysiological sexual arousal response has never been tested. The aim of this study was to compare genital (vaginal pulse amplitude; VPA) and subjective sexual arousal in asexual and non-asexual women. Thirty-eight women between the ages of 19 and 55 years (10 heterosexual, 10 bisexual, 11 homosexual, and 7 asexual) viewed neutral and erotic audiovisual stimuli while VPA and self-reported sexual arousal and affect were measured. There were no significant group differences in the increased VPA and self-reported sexual arousal response to the erotic film between the groups. Asexuals showed significantly less positive affect, sensuality-sexual attraction, and self-reported autonomic arousal to the erotic film compared to the other groups; however, there were no group differences in negative affect or anxiety. Genital-subjective sexual arousal concordance was significantly positive for the asexual women and non-significant for the other three groups, suggesting higher levels of interoceptive awareness among asexuals. Taken together, the findings suggest normal subjective and physiological sexual arousal capacity in asexual women and challenge the view that asexuality should be characterized as a sexual dysfunction.     

Exploring Variations in North American Adults’ Attitudes,Interest, Experience,and Outcomes Related to Mixed-Gender Threesomes: A Replication and Extension

Mixed-gender threesomes (MGTs) are a type of consensually nonmonogamous sexual encounter involving three people of more than one gender. Little research has been conducted on MGTs, and what little work does exist is limited to college students, who may actually be less experienced with MGTs than older adults. The present study investigated attitudes toward, interest in, experiences with, and outcomes of MGTs in two samples (college N?=?231; online N?=?1342), comprised of 907 heterosexual and 666 sexual minority participants in total. Results indicated that participants reported neutral-to-positive attitudes toward and moderate-to-high levels of interest in MGTs (81% indicated some degree of interest). MGTs involving familiar others were preferred to those involving strangers. Men, sexual minority individuals, and participants from the online sample reported more favorable attitudes toward and greater interest in MGTs as compared to women, heterosexual individuals, and participants from the student sample. In addition, 30% of participants indicated having experience with a MGT. Sexual minority individuals reported more experience with MGTs and more positive outcomes than did heterosexual individuals. In addition, on average, participants reported that their MGT experiences “met expectations.” Overall, these results indicate that MGTs are a common sexual behavior that often results in positive outcomes, especially among sexual minority individuals. Additional research on this understudied topic is needed, particularly as it relates to outcomes and the role of MGTs in consensually nonmonogamous relationships.

     

Dating and Courtship Behaviors Among Those with Autism Spectrum Disorder

There has been growing concern among stakeholders about individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), their sexual and intimate relationship experience, and their ability to pursue and maintain interpersonal relationships in a healthy manner. ASD is characterized, in part, by communication and socialization deficits, which may lead to miscommunications, inappropriate communications, or inappropriate actions towards romantic interests. This study sought to describe the romantic experiences of a small sample of individuals with ASD and explore any inappropriate courtship behaviors while pursuing a romantic interest.

     

Asexuality and Autochorissexualism (Identity-Less Sexuality)

I present evidence that target-oriented paraphilias may occur in some who report no sexual attraction for others or those who identify as asexual. One target-oriented paraphilia in some asexual people is a disconnection between their identity and a sexual target/object. I name this phenomenon autochorissexualism or “identity-less” sexuality.     

Self-labeling,perceived stigma toward autism spectrum disorder,and self-esteem and the change in autism nosology

BackgroundSince the DSM-5 came into force, individuals previously diagnosed with Asperger's syndrome (AS) were newly labeled as having autism spectrum disorder (ASD), raising concerns about the exacerbation of stigma toward individuals with AS.ObjectiveThis study explored: (a) the self-labeling among people previously diagnosed with AS; (b) the correlation among self-labeling, perceived public stigma (PPS) toward ASD, and self-esteem among people with AS; and (c) whether self-labeling mediates the relationship of PPS with ASD and self-esteem.MethodsA convenience sample of 89 individuals previously diagnosed with AS completed anonymous online questionnaires.ResultsMost participants self-labeled as people with AS. Self-labeling was not significantly correlated with PPS or self-esteem. Self-labeling did not mediate the correlation between PPS and self-esteem; PPS was directly correlated with self-esteem.ConclusionsOur study's findings suggest that stigma and language are not necessarily connected. This implies that rehabilitation and health care professionals should not assume that language perpetuates stigma, but rather that stigma—both among the public and as perceived by people with ASD—should be the focus of intervention.     

Substance Use and Mental Health Disorders Among Heterosexual Identified Men and Women Who Have Same-Sex Partners or Same-Sex Attraction: Results from the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions

This study examined sexual orientation discordance, a mismatch between self-reported sexual identity and sexual behavior or sexual attraction, by describing the characteristics, substance use disorders, and mental health risks of heterosexual identified individuals who endorsed this pattern of sexual identification, behavior, and attraction. Using data from the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC), we created three groups based on participants’ reported sexual identity and either their sexual behavior or sexual attraction: heterosexual concordant, homosexual concordant, and heterosexual discordant. Bivariate models assessed the relationship of discordant status and demographic correlates, lifetime substance use disorders, and mental health diagnoses. Logistic regression models tested associations between both behavior discordance and attraction discordance and the likelihood of having lifetime disorders of substance use, major depression, and generalized anxiety. Results of this study provided evidence of varying levels of substance use and mental health disorder risk by gender, discordance status, and discordance type. Behavioral discordance was associated with increased risk of mental health and substance use disorder among women (compared to heterosexual concordance). Findings among men were less consistent with heightened risk of alcohol and inhalant use only. Attraction discordance was notably different from behavioral discordance. The odds of substance use and mental health disorders were the same or lower compared with both the heterosexual and homosexual concordance groups. Future research should begin to test theoretical explanations for these differences.     

Parents' reports of their involvement in an Iranian parent-based early intervention programme for children with ASD

Based on the findings of several preliminary studies on support and services for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and their parents in Iran, an early intervention programme called Omid was established. This programme is based on the social model of disability. To promote the Omid resource kit, which is a component of the ‘Omid Early Intervention Programme’, a group of Iranian parents (N?=?39) of children with ASD at the first stage of diagnosis were recruited to ascertain their thoughts on parental engagement in the intervention programme. Parents' thoughts about the resource kit, the parent workshop and the professional visit at home were collected through notes which the parents presented to the researchers. Thematic analysis of the notes and comments showed that parental engagement in the early intervention process through a resource kit was welcomed within a society in which service provision for ASD is sparse and support for children with ASD and their parents is lacking.     

Removal of Asperger’s syndrome from the DSM V: community response to uncertainty

The May 2013 release of the new version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM V) subsumed Asperger’s syndrome under the wider diagnostic label of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The revision has created much uncertainty in the community affected by this condition. This study uses problematic integration theory and thematic analysis to investigate how participants in Wrong Planet, a large online community associated with autism and Asperger’s syndrome, have constructed these uncertainties. The analysis illuminates uncertainties concerning both the likelihood of diagnosis and value of diagnosis, and it details specific issues within these two general areas of uncertainty. The article concludes with both conceptual and practical implications.     

Mostly Heterosexual and Mostly Gay/Lesbian: Evidence for New Sexual Orientation Identities

A sample of 1,784 individuals responded to an online survey advertised on the Facebook social networking website. We explored the sexual orientation continuum by focusing on three components: self-reported sexual orientation identity, sexual attraction, and sexual partners. Results supported a 5-category classification of identity (heterosexual, mostly heterosexual, bisexual, mostly gay/lesbian, gay/lesbian) in that two added identity labels (mostly heterosexual and mostly gay/lesbian) were frequently chosen by participants and/or showed unique patterns of attraction and partners, distinct from their adjacent identities (heterosexual and bisexual, and bisexual and gay/lesbian, respectively). Those who reported an exclusive label (heterosexual, gay/lesbian) were not necessarily exclusive in other components; a significant minority of heterosexuals and the majority of gays/lesbians reported some attraction and/or partners toward their nonpreferred sex. The five identity groups differed in attraction and partners in a manner consistent with a continuous, rather than a categorical, distribution of sexual orientation. Findings also supported a sexual orientation continuum as consisting of two, rather than one, distinct dimensions (same- and other-sex sexuality). Having more same-sex sexuality did not necessarily imply having less other-sex sexuality, and vice versa. More men than women were at the exclusive ends of the continuum; however, men were not bimodally distributed in that a significant minority reported nonexclusivity in their sexuality.     

The number of recent sex partners among bisexual men in the United States

CONTEXT: Little is known regarding bisexual men’s number of recent sex partners, a risk factor for HIV and other STDs. Furthermore, it is unclear if bisexual men have more partners than heterosexual or homosexual men, and whether partner number varies by measures of sexual behavior, identity and attraction. METHODs: Sexual orientation—defined separately by sexual behavior during the past year, identity and attraction—was assessed for 3,875 sexually active men aged 15–44 who had participated in the 2002 National Survey of Family Growth. Chi‐square and t tests examined differences in background characteristics, behavioral risk factors and number of past‐year sex partners by sexual orientation according to each definition. Multivariate ordinary least‐squares regression was used to assess predictors of the number of partners. RESULTS: When sexual identity and attraction were controlled for, behaviorally bisexual men were predicted to have had 3.1 more past‐year partners than behaviorally heterosexual men and 2.6 more than behaviorally homosexual men. After controlling for sexual identity and behavior, bisexual‐attracted men had had 0.7 fewer partners than homosexual‐attracted men. In a model including background characteristics and behavioral risk factors, behaviorally bisexual men were predicted to have had 2.5–2.6 more partners than others. Neither bisexual identity nor bisexual attraction independently predicted the number of recent partners. CONCLUSION: The way in which bisexuality relates to men’s number of recent sex partners depends on how sexual orientation is measured. Interventions to reduce behaviorally bisexual men’s number of partners will likely lessen their risk for HIV and other STDs.     

Differences in the Psychological,Sexual, and Childhood Experiences Among Men with Extreme Interests in Voluntary Castration

Some genetic males seek voluntary castration. We designed a survey to compare the psychological, sexual, and childhood experiences for subgroups of men with extreme interest in castration. The survey was posted on the Eunuch Archive, an online platform for individuals interested in the topic. Data from 822 individuals were included in the analyses. Respondents were divided into four groups: Interested (claiming only an interest in castration topics), Fantasy (fantasize about castration sexually, but not desiring castration), Wannabe (considering being castrated in the future), and Castrated (already castrated). More individuals desiring castration (Wannabe and Castrated groups) claimed equal attraction to both sexes than individuals in the Interested group. The Interested group was more religious than the other groups, and the Fantasy group had lower sexual guilt than those with castration desire. All groups had similar psychological well-being and body image acceptance, despite the Castrated group having lower sexual functioning than the others. Childhood trauma was more common in those with castration desire than those without. The Interested group had a lower desire for castration, lower erotic attraction to castration, and pretended to be castrated at a younger age than the others. Childhood trauma and sexual guilt are common, but not limited, predictors for castration desire and erotic attraction to castration, respectively. In conclusion, childhood experiences, as well as psychological and sexual parameters, may vary in different subgroups of males with interests in castration.