Gender Representations on Disney Channel,Cartoon Network,and Nickelodeon Broadcasts in the United States

Children's television programming provides young viewers with characters displaying behaviors and individual traits that may promote or counter gender stereotypical expectations. The present study examined behaviors of both female and male television show characters across three networks: Disney Channel, Cartoon Network, and Nickelodeon. Content analysis within and across networks investigated whether network target audience is associated with gender representations of feminine and masculine behaviors among characters. The analyses revealed more male characters (66 per cent) regardless of network target audience gender, but few differences in terms of stereotyped behaviors when comparing female and male characters across all networks. However, male and female gender stereotypical behavior (e.g., physical aggression, rescuing another, displaying affection) differed significantly across networks. No significant differences emerged between female and male characters portrayed on the Disney Channel, although there were some differences between male and female characters on Nickelodeon and between males and females on Cartoon Network. Implications for gender socialization of children, the target audience, are discussed along with possible future directions for research.     

The tween television diet: a content analysis of US tween program food references

This content analysis, grounded in social cognitive theory, examined the nutritional quality of food, the outcomes associated with consuming food, the characters who reference food, and the context of food on narrative tween (9–14 year olds) television programs shown on Disney, Disney XD, Nickelodeon, Teen Nick, and Cartoon Network in the 2004–2013 seasons. Nutritious foods were portrayed more frequently than non-nutritious foods, and the outcomes of consuming food were mostly neutral, followed by positive, and then negative outcomes. Attractive characters most frequently experienced positive outcomes for consuming nutritious foods, whereas average-looking characters most frequently experienced negative outcomes for consuming nutritious food. Significant two-way interactions were found for nutritional quality with both food purpose and food occasion. Results are discussed in light of the healthful messages portrayed on tween television and the potential for modeling effects among tweens.     

GLOBAL STRATEGIES IN THE CHILDREN'S MEDIA MARKET

Children represent a very lucrative and sought‐after target for many consumer products globally, and interest in media entertainment programming catering to this specific audience has risen accordingly. Through the case study of Jetix, a transnational channel operating in the Italian media landscape on the satellite television platform Sky Italia, the article explores the strategies of global media and entertainment conglomerates competing to reach young consumers worldwide. The article analyzes Jetix's business model and strategies in the local market to establish and maintain a competitive advantage through its programming and its brands while leveraging its global production, distribution, and marketing structures. Jetix's evolving strategies are also analyzed in light of its global change of ownership from News Corporation to Disney.     

Nickelodeon markets nutrition-poor foods to children

BACKGROUND: While many factors contribute to childhood obesity and children's poor diets, food marketing affects children's food choices, preferences, their diets, and their health. The purpose of this study was to assess the nutritional quality of the foods marketed by one of the largest companies that markets food to children, Nickelodeon. METHODS: In fall 2005, the nutritional quality of foods advertised via Nickelodeon media and with Nickelodeon characters was assessed. The cross-sectional sample included food ads on the Nickelodeon television station and in Nickelodeon magazine, product packages with Nickelodeon characters found in one large urban grocery store, and meals at restaurants with promotions tied to Nickelodeon programs or characters. RESULTS: Of 168 television food ads, 148 (88%) were for foods of poor nutritional quality. Of 21 magazine food ads, 16 (76%) were for foods of poor nutritional quality. Fifteen grocery store products were identified with Nickelodeon characters on the packaging; nine (60%) were foods of poor nutritional quality. In addition, of the 48 possible children's meal combinations at restaurants with promotional offers tied to Nickelodeon programs, 45 (94%) were of poor nutritional quality. CONCLUSIONS: Through its food marketing, the Nickelodeon entertainment company influences the diets of millions of American children. Unfortunately, eight of ten foods, beverages, and restaurant meals advertised on Nickelodeon's television station, in its magazine, or tied to its characters are of poor nutritional quality. Rather than undermining parents' efforts to feed their children healthfully, Nickelodeon should support parents by setting nutrition standards and marketing to children only foods that meet those standards.     

Gender Differences in Depictions of Social and Physical Aggression in Children's Television Cartoons in the US

The main purpose of this study was to explore gender differences in depictions of social and physical aggression in children's television cartoons. With the knowledge that boys tend to commit physical aggression more than girls and that girls tend to perpetrate social aggression more than boys, it was expected that these gender differences in aggression type would be reflected in the cartoons. A content analysis of cartoons appearing on Cartoon Network, Nickelodeon, and Toon Disney was conducted. The findings showed that acts of physical aggression were more likely to be carried out by male characters, whereas acts of social aggression were more likely to be committed by female characters. Both the perpetrators and receivers of physical and social aggression tended to be children or teen characters, rather than adult characters. For a majority of the aggressive acts, immediate retribution or a defensive response did not result.     

A Content Analysis of Food References in Television Programming Specifically Targeting Viewing Audiences Aged 11 to 14 Years

ObjectiveExamine food in cable television programming specifically targeting 11- to 14-year-olds (“tweens”).DesignContent analysis of food-related scenes (FRS)—in which food was shown, mentioned, and/or consumed—in 880 minutes of programming was conducted.SettingFive days of afternoon/early evening television programs on the Disney Channel.Main Outcome Measures and AnalysisFood references were compared with USDA MyPlate and classified according to modified Ratio of Recommended to Restricted Food Components.ResultsThe authors found 331 FRS, averaging 16.6 scenes/h. Preponderance of FRS was physiological needs (40.7%), followed by display (10%), party (8.5%), social event (8%), and retail store (6.6%). Snacks dominated 41% of FRS, and breakfast, lunch, and dinner were much lower in frequency. Half of FRS was visual only, followed by verbal only. Food references were not congruent with MyPlate recommendations; 42% of food items did not fit into MyPlate food groups. Only 24% of food items were fruit or vegetables, which is considerably less than recommended by MyPlate guidelines. Using modified Ratio of Recommended to Restricted Food Components, 66% of food items scored < 1.0, signifying less nutritious.Conclusions and ImplicationsTween television programming regularly includes non-nutritious food, which likely influences tweens' attitudes and behaviors. Television programming may consider past approaches to tobacco smoking and health messages on television. More attention is warranted regarding television programming by nutrition educators, researchers, health professionals, and industry specialists.     

Quality children's television: the case of “Lift Off”

“Lift off” is a new, innovative children's television series produced by the Australian Children's Television Foundation. It has been well received by critics, parents, educators and most significantly, by its three-to-eight year old target audience.

The program easily satisfies the five criteria for quality programming formulated by the Children's Program Committee of the Australian Broadcasting Tribunal. The typical half-hour program is dense, requiring close viewer attention but it is claimed that the viewer is rewarded for her viewing investment with an enriching and pleasurable experience. The doubt is raised that the socially disadvantaged segment of the child audience, who use television for diversion rather than enrichment, may not be prepared to make such an investment of viewing attention.

One final concern is voiced. The Foundation's official spokespeople publicly claim that “Lift Off” will enrich the lives of a whole age cohort. It is argued that such claims overemphasise the supposed direct consequences and impact of media messages on individuals.     

Just one click: a content analysis of advertisements on teen web sites

PurposeThe current study provides a comprehensive analysis of the content of advertisements on Web sites targeted at adolescents, with a particular focus on the female beauty ideal.MethodsAdvertisements (N = 631) from 14 Web sites popular with adolescents were analyzed with respect to product advertised, characteristics of people presented, and emphasis on appearance and the thin beauty ideal.ResultsAlthough a wide variety of products were featured, advertisements for cosmetics and beauty products were the most frequent. Further, many of the products advertised (e.g., dating services, weight loss products, gambling games) might be considered inappropriate for the intended audience (i.e., teenagers) of the Web site. People who were a part of advertisements were generally female, young, thin, and attractive. Advertisements for games, weight loss products, and cosmetic and beauty products strongly focused on appearance and laid emphasis on the thin ideal.ConclusionsLike advertisements in mainstream media, advertising on the Internet perpetuates the stereotypical ideal of feminine beauty. Adolescents using the Internet are likely to be exposed to numerous advertisements that reinforce the importance of beauty and thinness, which could have a detrimental impact on how they feel about their bodies.     

Becoming Tween Bodies: What Preadolescent Girls in the US Say About Beauty,The “Just-Right Ideal,” and the “Disney Girls”

Preadolescent girls in the US consume more commercial media, much of which emphasizes a narrow conceptualization of ideal beauty, in more varied formats than any generation preceding them. This study used qualitative methods including participant-created photo collages, email diaries, and in-depth interviews to elicit information about how a racially and socioeconomically diverse group of 9- to 11-year-old US girls interacted with traditional and new media, envisioned the beauty ideal, and interpreted the need to subscribe to beauty and body maintenance practices. This analysis identified the contours of the “just-right ideal” to which girls aspire, the “Disney Girls” who embody it, and the complicated ways in which girls integrate the beauty practices prescribed by this ideal into their lives.     

Television and adolescent sexuality

Existing studies of the sexual content of television programming and advertising and the effects of this content on adolescent viewers are reviewed. Content studies show that the frequency of sexual references have increased in the past decade and are increasingly explicit. Studies of the effects of this content, while scarce, suggest that adolescents who rely heavily on television for information about sexuality will have high standards of female beauty and will believe that premarital and extramarital intercourse with multiple partners is acceptable. They are unlikely to learn about the need for contraceptives as a form of protection against pregnancy or disease. Suggestions for future research and trends in television programming policies are explored.     

Health messages on television commercials

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE. Television is an important source of health information in the United States, yet little research has focused on the presentation of general health issues on television. This preliminary study reports on the health-related content of television commercials found on a typical television day. METHODS. We conducted a content analysis of a composite day of television comprising 20 hours randomly selected over a three week period (April-May 1989). Findings are presented regarding health messages found in commercial time--advertisements, public service announcements (PSAs), editorials, and promotions for upcoming programs. RESULTS. Overall, 31% of the 654 commercial spots contained health messages. Most health messages were claims of good nutrition in food and beverage advertisements. PSAs comprise 1.4% of the 20-hour sample and 5.8% of the commercial time. Health messages appeared in 38% of PSAs, accounting for less than seven minutes. Not one PSA addressed tobacco, alcohol, or diet--the three leading behavioral risk factors for poor health. DISCUSSION. PSAs are usually seen as a mechanism by which the public health community can alert the public to important health issues. Given the declining pool of PSA time, public health educators will need to seek alternative strategies for influencing television content, such as media advocacy. In addition, further research on audience interpretation and response to commercial messages is suggested.     

Are "drink responsibly" alcohol campaigns strategically ambiguous?

This article applies the concept of strategic ambiguity in examining viewer responses to brewer-sponsored "responsible drinking" television advertising campaigns. Strategically ambiguous messages are designed to engender diverse interpretations between varied audience segments, and these different selective perceptions should translate into relatively uniform positive corporate images. In this study, teenage and young adult respondents were shown a series of television spots from two leading alcohol companies. As predicted, there was a high degree of diversity in meanings of message content and campaign purpose derived by viewers, particularly among less sophisticated teenagers. Moreover, evaluative ratings of messages and sponsors were generally favorable and more uniform than interpretive responses. The research demonstrates how seemingly prohealth messages can serve to subtly advance both industry sales and public relations interests.     

High on Attractiveness,Low on Nutrition: An Over-Time Comparison of Advertising Food Products on Israeli Television

This content analysis examines Israeli television food advertising. It compares 2008–2009 and 2012–2013, two periods immediately before and several years after regulatory, educational, and public-advocacy efforts have been advanced to raise awareness of and tackle the television–obesity link. Advertisements were drawn from a composite week sample aired on Israeli broadcast channels from 4:00 p.m. until midnight in each of the two periods. Nearly a quarter of ads were for food products, even after a significant drop over the years. The most common food categories included candies and sweetened drinks, whereas fruit and vegetables were among the least common products advertised. The most prevalent central message in food advertisements was that the product makes for an economically sensible purchase, with a much lower focus on the health qualities of the food products. Food advertisements were characterized by a very short duration and an increased reliance on emotional, rather than cognitive, appeal, especially in ads for low-nutrient foods. A significant increase was observed in 2012–2013 in the reliance on thin models in food advertisements, and these were most often associated with high levels of physical attractiveness, promoting the thin ideal. Findings are discussed in light of theory, previous research conducted worldwide, and audience effects. Implications are addressed for health and media industry regulation efforts.     

Memorable messages about genes and health: implications for direct-to-consumer marketing of genetic tests and therapies

The era of genomic health care introduces new realities into decision-making about the prevention and treatment of disease. Despite this reality, relatively little is known about lay audience recollection of images and messages about genes and health, or their perceptions about the role of genetics research for health, and what diseases are inherited. Participants (N=482) responded to three open-ended thought-listing tasks to consider these issues. Results revealed the significance of movies in framing memorable messages for participants, with print sources and television also represented. Both awareness and product commercials also comprised specific memories. Cloning was a frequently recalled message and often the first thought that came to participants' minds. While a broad range of conditions were associated with health risks inherited from one's family, cancer was most often identified. The messages recalled revealed a number of common features including their tendency to be emotion-laden. The theoretic and pragmatic implications of these results are considered.     

Nine out of 10 food advertisements shown during Saturday morning children's television programming are for foods high in fat, sodium, or added sugars, or low in nutrients

A 2005 review by the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies concluded that food marketing influences children's food preferences, consumption, and health. Given the powerful influence of marketing on children's diets, this cross-sectional study examined the types of foods, the nutritional quality of those foods, and the marketing techniques and messages used in food advertising during Saturday morning children's television programming. During 27.5 hours of programming in May 2005, 49% of advertisements shown were for food (281 food advertisements out of 572 total advertisements). The most commonly advertised food categories were ready-to-eat breakfast cereal and cereal bars (27% of all food advertisements), restaurants (19% of food advertisements), and snack foods (18% of food advertisements). Ninety-one percent of food advertisements were for foods or beverages high in fat, sodium, or added sugars or were low in nutrients. Cartoon characters were used in 74% of food advertisements, and toy or other giveaways were used in 26% of food advertisements. About half of food advertisements contained health/nutrition or physical activity messages and 86% of food advertisements contained emotional appeals. This study provides food and nutrition professionals with information about the amount and types of food children are encouraged to eat during Saturday morning television programming. The findings can help food and nutrition professionals counsel children about healthful eating and/or develop programs or policies to balance those advertisements with healthful eating messages.     

From “Bibbid-Bobbidi-Boo” to Scrooge: an update and comparative analysis of the portrayal of older characters in recent Disney animated films

Disney animated films continue to be a medium viewed by millions of young audiences across the world. As such, Disney content messages – which are often repeatedly viewed by children – and correlating implications should frequently be assessed. The objective for this investigation was to evaluate the portrayal of older adults in more recent Disney animated films (from 2004 to 2016) to provide both an update and comparative analysis to previous explorations. Results suggest comparable findings: we note a similarity in the overall negative portrayal of older characters in recent Disney animated films compared to previous films. Furthermore, we observed a decrease in “neutral” or general aging qualities, as well as a slight increase in the number of older adults depicted as “the villain.” Implications and observations are offered in efforts to improve ageist representations, particularly in a medium that is exceptionally prevalent in the lives of many young people.     

Straight,white teeth as a social prerogative

A distinguishing feature of North American society is preoccupation with self‐image, as seen in the ritualistic nature of bodily practices aimed at constantly improving the body. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the prevailing fixation with straight, white teeth. While there is an ever‐expanding literature on the sociology of body, very little has been written on teeth in this context. Using literature from anthropology, biology, dentistry, sociology and social psychology, this study attempts to answer: (1) Why have straight, white teeth become a beauty ideal in North American society? (2) What is the basis for this ideal? (3) How is this ideal propagated? It demonstrates that dental aesthetic tendencies are biologically, culturally and socially patterned. Concepts from the works of Pierre Bourdieu and Michel Foucault are used to illustrate how straight, white teeth contribute towards reinforcing class differences and how society exercises a disciplinary power on individuals through this ideal. It is concluded that modified teeth are linked to self and identity that are rooted in social structure. Moreover, teeth demonstrate the ways in which class differences are embodied and projected as symbols of social advantage or disadvantage. Implications on professional, public health, sociological and political levels are considered.     

Development of a smoking prevention mass media program using diagnostic and formative research

The process of developing a mass media campaign to prevent smoking among adolescents is described in detail. This campaign supplements a school smoking prevention program and shares educational objectives with the school program but is otherwise independent. It comprises various television and radio 30- and 60-sec "spot" messages. The campaign development process includes identifying educational objectives and strategies for appealing to young people; conducting diagnostic surveys and focus groups to determine target audience interests and perceptions about smoking and media content; suggesting approaches to producers to create preliminary television and radio messages for testing; conducting formative pretests with target groups to select optimal messages and suggest improvements to those messages; producing final messages for media presentation; and developing a media exposure plan to place messages in local media at optimal times for reception by target audiences. The media campaign is being evaluated in a 5-year project with 5,500 adolescents in four communities to determine the additional effect of mass media over a school program alone in preventing smoking.     

Pediatric Television: the State of the Art

This article is a report on the results of a survey aimed at determining how television is used to benefit hospitalized children in both general and pediatric hospitals Based on responses from 128 hospitais, the report examines general mformation on the presence of television, the use of videocassette players, and the operation of closed-circuit television stations Topics discussed include equipment, funding, program selection, live programming, and, finally, the need for a commumcation network specifically focused on the field of pediatric television.     

Watching television: how does it influence the dietary quality of children?

The prevalence of obesity is increasing and continues to be a concern, particularly in children, where the condition may lead to chronic health problems typically seen only in adults. This has prompted researchers to look at the relationships between sedentary behaviours, such as television viewing, diet and obesity in children. Epidemiological studies have shown repeatedly that rates of obesity are associated with both increased media use and poor diet quality in children and adults. Such studies have also shown that hours of television watched are associated with an increased intake of nutrient‐poor, energy dense foods and greater overall energy intake. In children, intervention studies that have imposed reductions in television viewing time have shown that reducing the time spent watching television may decrease energy intake and improve overall diet quality. However, these studies are confounded by the use of self‐reported measures for television viewing time and dietary intake. Despite these limitations, the results are promising and more research could lead to a greater understanding of these relationships. Ultimately, clear and concise public health messages for children and their parents regarding the benefits of television time reduction would assist in the fight against obesity.