高分辨率半导体矩阵的剂量学特性

目的:研究一种新的高分辨率探测器矩阵的临床剂量学特性。方法:使用泛野校准法,在直线加速器6 MV光子线下对矩阵进行一致性校准。测量矩阵的短期和长期稳定性、剂量线性、剂量率响应、射野大小依赖性,并与电离室的测量结果进行比较。测量相应能量下矩阵的表面等效厚度,测量射野离轴比曲线并且与三维水箱测量结果进行了比较。设计一组条形野,以及一组由不同大小方野形成的组合野,使用探测器矩阵和 Mapcheck进行测量,并与治疗计划系统计算结果进行比较。结果:归一后矩阵的短期重复性标准偏差为0.075%,最大偏差为0.14%;长期重复性标准偏差为0.69%,最大偏差为0.92%。剂量线性经直线回归后的R2=1.000 0;在40~600 MU/min剂量率范围内矩阵中心探头变化范围为0.62%;与指形电离室相比,在25 cm方野时射野输出因子偏差为1.2%,3 cm方野时为4.4%。在10 cm深度处校准时矩阵测量的离轴比曲线与三维水箱测量结果相对吻合,误差在2%以内;矩阵的表面等效厚度约为0.4~0.5 cm;在3%/3 mm和2%/2 mm标准下,Super Matrix和Mapcheck测量方野组合野计划的γ通过率分别为100.0%、98.8%和99.6%、97.5%。测量MLC条形野计划的γ通过率分别为99.1%、94.4%和99.4%、94.4%。结论:Super Matrix具有良好的剂量学特性,满足临床质量控制的基本要求。     

三维分析仪与两维矩阵射野测量的比较

目的:应用不同仪器与方法测量加速器6 MV X线射野的特性,比较各方法的优劣和局限性,探讨快速简便检测射野特性的方法。材料与方法:分别采用电离室和半导体探头配合三维射野分析仪测量加速器6 MV X线不同射野大小的百分深度剂量曲线PDD和离轴比曲线OCR,并以二维电离室矩阵测量相同条件的OCR。(1)比较采用电离室和半导体探头测量PDD的差别。(2)比较两维矩阵与电离室半导体探头测量射野的对称性、平坦度、射野大小和半影等的差别。结果:对小于15 cm×15 cm照射野,半导体探头和电离室测量PDD的结果一致性较好,两者偏差小于1.3%。对于20 cm×20 cm照射野,半导体探头的测量结果大于电离室,最大差别3.5%,偏差为2.6%。用半导体探头与电离室测量射野的大小,两者的最大差别为0.6 mm,两者有较好的一致性,二维电离室矩阵测量与前两者比较,最大差别为2.9 mm,最小差别0.5 mm。三种方法测量的射野平坦度差别在1.2%~2.6%,矩阵的测量数值在半导体和电离室测量范围之内。结论:在检测加速器射野性能时,二维矩阵可以快速检测射野平坦度、对称性,但测量射野大小时可能有较大误差,不宜用作验收加速器和收集...     

半导体和电离室探头在直线加速器数据测量中的比较与分析

目的：比较分析半导体探头和电离室探头在三维水箱测量中的差异，为能够提高数据测量精度从而实现治疗计划系统建立准确的计算模型提供依据：方法：在加速器8MV光子线下，使用0．13cm^3的指形电离室和半导体探头在三维水箱中分别测量照射野1cm×lcm，2cm×2cm，3cm×3cm，4cm×4cm，5cm×5cm，6cm×6cm，8cm×8cm，10cm×l0cm的总散射因子、百分深度剂量曲线、离轴比曲线，对测量结果进行比较和分析；结果：对于总散射因子，在较大照射野测量时结果一致，在小野测量时存在差异，1cm×lcm照射野的两者测量结果偏差15．32％；对于百分深度曲线，在建成区差异最大，各照射野的在水面处的测量结果均偏差10％以上：对于离轴比曲线，在半影区存在显著差异．半导体探头在最大剂量点深度测量的射野大小均小明显小于电离室测量的结果。结论：总散射因子，小照射野测量时建议使用半导体探头或者较小体积的电离室；百分深度剂量曲线，建议使用电离室探头；离轴比曲线，使用半导体探头可测量到较好的射野半影区。     

非晶硅电子射野影像装置在直线加速器日检中的应用

目的:在分析非晶硅电子射野影像系统(a-Si EPl D)的剂量学基础上,利用开发的软件自动分析每日采集的射野影像,获取直线加速器的输出剂量、平坦度、对称性及射野尺寸等参数,使a-Si EPID成为加速器的快速日检工具。方法:首先对a-Si EPID进行校准,并将其分成16个大小为10 cm×10 cm的子区域,移动a-Si EPID依次照射,截取中心轴附近10 cm×10 cm(SSD 160 cm)的区域相互叠加获取增益影像,并进行输出剂量校准。随后通过自编软件根据校准数据分析每天标准射野影像得出加速器日检参数:输出剂量、射野尺寸、平坦度、对称性,并将结果与指形电离室及三维水箱数据进行比较。结果:加速器出束从97 MU至103 MU,模拟剂量偏差±3%。结果显示a-Si EPID中心轴灰度剂量呈高度线性,与指形电离室的最大偏差为小于1%。平坦度、对称性两个参数的基线偏离与三维水箱高度一致,结果均分别小于±0.5%和±1.5%。结论:因测量准确性及便利性,可以利用自编软件及a-Si EPID用于加速器日检。     

二维半导体阵列应用于动态楔形板二维平面剂量的测量

目的:探讨利用二维半导体阵列(Mapcheck)测量Varian动态楔形板二维平面剂量的方法。方法与材料:(1)在CMS XIO治疗计划系统(TPS)建立一个模体,在三维治疗计划系统上设置一定条件的射野计算并输出二维剂量平面分布图。(2)用标定后的Mapcheck逐一测量治疗计划系统给定的条件射野及楔形角,并用测量结果与TPS计算结果比较。(3)比较不同照射野及动态楔形角的水下深度5 cm的绝对剂量,并分析。结果:Mapcheck测量的二维平面剂量结果与TPS计算的结果通过率都在98%以上。Mapcheck测量与TPS计算水下深度5 cm剂量相差都在正负0.8%范围内。结论:利用Mapcheck测量动态楔形板的二维平面剂量的方法是可行的,测量结果准确,且精度较高,方便、快速。     

基于二维矩阵透射剂量重建入射原射线注量分布

目的:通过电子射野影像装置(Electronic Portal Imaging Device,EPID)平面处测量得到的透射剂量分布重建到模体表面前的原射线注量分布。方法:使用SUN NUCLEAR公司的二维半导体阵列(Mapcheck2)和PTW公司的OCTAVIUS Detector 1000SRS测量有模体和无模体时不同大小射野在EPID平面处的透射剂量,通过笔者编写的算法重建入射原射线注量分布,并与三维水箱探头加带平衡帽测量的原射线注量分布比较。结果:采用Gamma法(3 mm/3%)进行评估,在射野内Mapcheck2和OCTAVIUS Detector 1000SRS探测器通过率为100%。结论:本次研究建立的模型得出的原射线离轴比的准确性可满足临床要求,可以用于剂量验证。     

高能光子相对输出因子的测量与分析

目的:研究不同探测器和使用方法对高能光子相对输出因子测量结果的影响.方法:分别使用PTW 30006、PTW31006电离室和GAFCHROMIC EBT胶片测量ELEKTA Precise加速器光子相对输出因子.结果:照射野大于等于4om×4cm时,胶片和PTW 30006电离室测量结果相对偏差小于±1.0%.归一到5cm×5 cm照射野时,边长为2cm、3cm、4 cm、6cm和10cm方野,胶片和PTW 31006电离室测量结果相对偏差分别为2.2%、0.6%、013%、0.3%和-1.7%.随照射面积增大,PTW 31006与PTW 30006电离室测量结果偏离程度不断加大,40cm×40cm时偏高约8.2%.结论:合理选择胶片数字化设备和使用方法,GAFCHROMIC EBT胶片可以用于所有照射野相对输出因子的测量或作为电离室法测量结果的有益补充和参考.     

电离室阵列在电子束旋转照射剂量验证中的应用

目的:考察一种二维电离室阵列对斜入射电子线剂量测量的特性与误差,探讨其用于电子束旋转照射计划剂量分布验证的可行性。材料与方法:(1)在±50°范围内比较电离室阵列与指形电离室测量的差别并校准电离室阵列;(2)设计6和10MeV电子束旋转照射体模计划各三个(0°机架角时的射线束中心轴对称夹角30°、60°和90°)。用二维电离室阵列分别测量验证各计划的剂量分布。结果:(1)电离室阵列中心探头与指形电离室在上述斜入射条件下对6MeV/10MeV电子线的测量差别小于2%。(2)各电子线旋转照射计划在中心轴上最大剂量深度处的剂量误差均小于3%。离轴剂量比误差在非旋转方向上旋转射野中间70%区域内小于2%;在旋转方向上最大不超过1.5%。冠状平面上的100%～20%各等剂量曲线符合性较好;6MeV和10MeV的电子线的30°、60°、90°旋转照射计划的Gamma指数通过率(=5%和=5mm)分别为99.98%、99.89%、99.74%、98.64%、99.16%和99.44%。结论:所测试的二维电离室阵列对斜入射电子线测量误差能满足±50°范围内的电子束旋转治疗的计划剂量验证要求。     

二维电离室矩阵中射野边界位置对调强验证Gamma通过率的影响

目的:针对(10×10)cm~2射野,探讨改变射野边界在矩阵中的位置对测量射野大小及Gamma(γ)通过率的影响。方法:使用MatriXX二维电离室矩阵测量(10×10)cm~2射野剂量分布,保持射野大小不变,移动X方向准直器和在Y方向移动治疗床两种方式改变射野边界在矩阵中的位置,用OmniPro I'mRT(1.7)软件分析每次移动0.1 cm时射野边长的改变量,同时用实测剂量分布和XiO(4.40)治疗计划系统相应射野剂量分布对比,记录3%/3 mm评估标准下的γ通过率和γ为100%时的评估标准。结果:在矩阵电离室腔外间隙射野边长改变量低于0.1 cm,且在每两个电离室腔外间隙正中改变量最小接近0.05 cm;在电离室腔体内改变量高于0.1 cm,且在每一个电离室腔体中心接近最大值0.2 cm。3%/3 mm下的γ结果显示射野边界不通过点数随位置变化明显不同,在射野边长改变量最大和最小附近通过率高,全部通过的评估标准范围是2%/2 mm至6%/3 mm。结论:选取射野边界在矩阵电离室腔体中心或腔外间隙正中位置时,所测射野大小偏差最小。同时上述射野边界位置γ通过率最高,因此,在调强计划剂量分布验证中要充分考虑射野剂量梯度较大处在电离室矩阵的位置对γ通过率的影响,可调整剂量分布在矩阵中位置或改变不同评估标准详细分析γ通过率差异,从而提高γ通过率的有效性,对临床工作具有一定的指导作用。     

直线加速器均整和非均整模式下射线质和射野输出因子的蒙特卡罗模拟与实测值比较

目的:利用蒙特卡罗方法分别模拟True Beam直线加速器6 MV均整和非均整(Flattening Filter-Free,FFF)模式,计算其射线质和射野输出因子,并比较上述参数与实际测量结果的差异。方法:利用Beamnrc和Dosxyznrc程序建立加速器机头模型并计算两档能量在参考条件下不同射野的剂量学数据。输出上述数据,计算各个射野射线质与实际测量值的相对偏差,对其绝对值做统计分析;利用各个射野中心轴上水下10 cm处的剂量值获取射野输出因子,并计算与测量值的相对偏差,绝对化后做统计分析。结果:6 MV和6FFF两档能量射线质相对偏差绝对值分别为(0.459±0.462)%和(0.486±0.300)%,射野输出因子相对偏差绝对值分别为(1.315±1.868)%和(0.904±1.214)%。结论:该模型的射线质和输出因子与测量结果相对偏差较小,基本可用于临床剂量学研究。     

高能电子线放射治疗的剂量学参数测量与分析

目的：对高能电子线总输出因子、百分深度剂量、深度剂量分布的剂量学参数进行测量并分析讨论。方法：在Varian23EX直线加速器上,利用9606剂量测量仪和0．6cc指型电离室测量不同能量、不同限光筒及不同射野下的输出剂量并作归一,得到我们所要的剂量学参数,然后分析数据。结果：总输出因子在不同能量下与正方形射野边长的关系可满足等式：y=a·e^bx＋c·e^dx。水模体百分剂量分布中,6MeV电子线各限光筒的90％、85％等剂量深度基本不变,9MeV-15MeV下90％、85％等剂量深度随着限光筒尺寸增大而变深。对于水模体的深度剂量分布情况,6MeV和12MeV能量的10cmx10cm、15cmxl5cm限光筒均整区内对称点的最大相对剂量差分别都为0．04％、O．03％。结论：通过测量掌握实际照射中的剂量学特点．对于电子线剂量的准确计算以及临床计划制定具有很大的参考价值。     

Dosimetric characterization of silicon and diamond detectors in low-energy proton beams

The dosimetric behaviour of a Scanditronix p-type silicon diode and a PTW natural diamond detector was studied in low-energy proton beams in the 8.3-21.5 MeV range. The properties investigated were linearity, reproducibility, dose rate dependence, energy and linear energy transfer (LET) dependence. The influence of detector thickness on the results of depth dose measurements was also demonstrated. A Markus parallel plate ionization chamber was used for reference dosimetry. Silicon diode and diamond detectors showed linearity at therapeutic dose level, reproducibility better than 1% (1sigma) and sensitivity variation with dose rate and proton energy.     

Water-equivalent dosimeter array for small-field external beam radiotherapy

With the increasing complexity of dose patterns external beam radiotherapy, there is a great need for new types of dosimeters. We studied the first prototype of a new dosimeter array consisting of water-equivalent plastic scintillating fibers for dose measurement in external beam radiotherapy. We found that this array allows precise, rapid dose evaluation of small photon fields. Starting with a dosimeter system constructed with a single scintillating fiber coupled to a clear optical fiber and read using a charge coupled device camera, we looked at the dosimeter's spatial resolution under small radiation fields and angular dependence. Afterward, we analyzed the camera's light collection to determine the maximum array size that could be built. Finally, we developed a prototype made of ten scintillating fiber detectors to study the behavior and precision of this system in simple dosimetric situations. The scintillation detector showed no measurable angular dependence. Comparison of the scintillation detector and a small-volume ion chamber showed agreement except for 1 x 1 and 0.5 x 5.0 cm (2) fields where the output factor measured by the scintillator was higher. The actual field of view of the camera could accept more than 4000 scintillating fiber detectors simultaneously. Evaluation of the dose profile and depth dose curve using a prototype with ten scintillating fiber detectors showed precise, rapid dose evaluation even with placement of more than 75 optical fibers in the field to simulate what would happen in a larger array. We concluded that this scintillating fiber dosimeter array is a valuable tool for dose measurement in external beam radiotherapy. It possesses the qualities necessary to evaluate small and irregular fields with various incident angles such as those encountered in intensity-modulated radiotherapy, radiosurgery, and tomotherapy.     

Use of a two-dimensional ionization chamber array for proton therapy beam quality assurance

Two-dimensional ion chamber arrays are primarily used for conventional and intensity modulated radiotherapy quality assurance. There is no commercial device of such type available on the market that is offered for proton therapy quality assurance. We have investigated suitability of the MatriXX, a commercial two-dimensional ion chamber array detector for proton therapy QA. This device is designed to be used for photon and electron therapy QA. The device is equipped with 32 x 32 parallel plate ion chambers, each with 4.5 mm diam and 7.62 mm center-to-center separation. A 250 MeV proton beam was used to calibrate the dose measured by this device. The water equivalent thickness of the buildup material was determined to be 3.9 mm using a 160 MeV proton beam. Proton beams of different energies were used to measure the reproducibility of dose output and to evaluate the consistency in the beam flatness and symmetry measured by MatriXX. The output measurement results were compared with the clinical commissioning beam data that were obtained using a 0.6 cc Farmer chamber. The agreement was consistently found to be within 1%. The profiles were compared with film dosimetry and also with ion chamber data in water with an excellent agreement. The device is found to be well suited for quality assurance of proton therapy beams. It provides fast two-dimensional dose distribution information in real time with the accuracy comparable to that of ion chamber measurements and film dosimetry.     

Monte Carlo study of si diode response in electron beams

Silicon semiconductor diodes measure almost the same depth-dose distributions in both photon and electron beams as those measured by ion chambers. A recent study in ion chamber dosimetry has suggested that the wall correction factor for a parallel-plate ion chamber in electron beams changes with depth by as much as 6%. To investigate diode detector response with respect to depth, a silicon diode model is constructed and the water/silicon dose ratio at various depths in electron beams is calculated using EGSnrc. The results indicate that, for this particular diode model, the diode response per unit water dose (or water/diode dose ratio) in both 6 and 18 MeV electron beams is flat within 2% versus depth, from near the phantom surface to the depth of R50 (with calculation uncertainty <0.3%). This suggests that there must be some other correction factors for ion chambers that counter-balance the large wall correction factor at depth in electron beams. In addition, the beam quality and field-size dependence of the diode model are also calculated. The results show that the water/diode dose ratio remains constant within 2% over the electron energy range from 6 to 18 MeV. The water/diode dose ratio does not depend on field size as long as the incident electron beam is broad and the electron energy is high. However, for a very small beam size (1 X 1 cm(2)) and low electron energy (6 MeV), the water/diode dose ratio may decrease by more than 2% compared to that of a broad beam.     

Two-dimensional transmitted dose measurements using a scanning liquid ionization chamber EPID

The use of a scanning liquid ionization chamber electronic portal imaging device (SLIC-EPID) for two-dimensional transmitted dosimetry was investigated and a calibration method was developed using extended dose range (EDR2) film. In order to convert pixel value to dose, the acquired SLIC-EPID pixel values were calibrated using an ionization chamber on the central axis. The relationship between pixel values, dose rate and absorbed dose was identified for various linac output repetition rates. To correct EPIs for dosimetric purposes, the off-axis ratio of dose profiles measured by EPIDs and EDR2 film was used to derive correction factor matrices (CFMs) for a range of source-to-EPID distances (SEDs). The corrected relative dose maps acquired for different conditions, including open and wedged fields, measured using a SLIC-EPID were compared with EDR2 film images using a gamma function algorithm with distance to agreement (DTA) = 2.5 mm and dose difference (DeltaDmax) = 1% criteria. The results showed that (a) for two-dimensional dosimetric purposes, EPIDs must be calibrated using appropriate two-dimensional correction factors and (b) SLIC-EPIDs can be used to measure the transmitted dose with good accuracy.     

Comparative dosimetry in narrow high-energy photon beams

A comparison of the response of different dosimeters in narrow photon beams (phi > or = 4 mm) of 6 and 18 MV bremsstrahlung has been performed. The detectors used were a natural diamond detector, a liquid ionization chamber, a plastic scintillator and two dedicated silicon diodes. The diodes had a very small detection volume and one was a specially designed double diode using two parallel opposed active volumes with compensating interface perturbations. The characteristics of the detectors were investigated both for dose distribution measurements, such as depth-dose curves and lateral beam profiles, and for output factors. The dose rate and angular dependence of the diamond and the two diodes were also studied separately. The depth-dose distributions for small fields agree well for the diamond, the scintillator and the single diode, while the measured dose maximum for the double diode is about 1% higher and for the liquid chamber about 1% lower than the mean of the others when normalized at a depth of 10 cm. The plastic scintillator and the liquid ionization chamber detect a penumbra width that is slightly broadened due to the influence of their finite size, while the double diode may even underestimate the penumbra width due to its small size and high density. When corrected for the extension of the detector volume a good agreement with Monte Carlo calculated beam profiles was obtained for the plastic scintillator and the liquid ionization chamber. Profiles measured with the diamond show an asymmetry when positioned with the smallest dimension facing the beam, while the double diode, the scintillator and the liquid chamber measure symmetric profiles irrespective of positioning. Significant differences in the output factors were obtained with the different detectors. The natural diamond detector measures output factors close to those with an ionization chamber (less than 1% difference) for field sizes between 3 x 3 and 15 x 15 cm2, but overestimates the output factors for large fields and underestimates the output factors for the smallest field sizes. The single and double diodes overestimated the output factor for large field sizes by up to 7 and 12% respectively due to the high content of low-energy photons. The double diode, and to some extent the single diode, also showed a relative increase in response compared with the more water equivalent liquid chamber and plastic scintillator at the smallest fields where there is a lack of lateral electron equilibrium. Both the plastic scintillator and the liquid chamber also show responses that deviate from the ionization chamber for larger field sizes. The major deviations can be explained based on the characteristics of the sensitive materials and the construction of the detectors.     

Dosimetric characterization of the 18-MV photon beam from the Siemens Mevatron 77 linear accelerator

A comprehensive set of dosimetric measurements has been made on the Mevatron 77.80.67 18-MV photon beam. Percentage depth dose, dose in the buildup region, field size dependence of output, transmission through lead, tray attenuation, and isodose curves for the open and wedged fields were measured using an ionization chamber in water and polystyrene phantoms. These dosimetric measurements sufficiently characterized the beam to permit clinical use. The depth dose at 10-cm depth for a 10 X 10 cm2 field at 100-cm source-to-skin distance (SSD) is 80.9%, which meets design specifications. Central axis depth-dose data were fitted to within 0.5% by a set of polynomial equations utilizing a two-dimensional linear regression analysis. Tissue-maximum ratios calculated from depth-dose data agree with measured data to within 2%. Output differences as large as 2.5% were measured for rectangular fields depending on which collimator jaws defined the long dimension of the field. The field size dependence of output was fit to within +/- 0.1% by a linear regression. The half-value thickness of the beam was measured to be 13 mm of lead.     

Monte Carlo study of a Cyberknife stereotactic radiosurgery system

This study investigated small-field dosimetry for a Cyberknife stereotactic radiosurgery system using Monte Carlo simulations. The EGSnrc/BEAMnrc Monte Carlo code was used to simulate the Cyberknife treatment head, and the DOSXYZnrc code was implemented to calculate central axis depth-dose curves, off-axis dose profiles, and relative output factors for various circular collimator sizes of 5 to 60 mm. Water-to-air stopping power ratios necessary for clinical reference dosimetry of the Cyberknife system were also evaluated by Monte Carlo simulations. Additionally, a beam quality conversion factor, kQ, for the Cyberknife system was evaluated for cylindrical ion chambers with different wall material. The accuracy of the simulated beam was validated by agreement within 2% between the Monte Carlo calculated and measured central axis depth-dose curves and off-axis dose profiles. The calculated output factors were compared with those measured by a diode detector and an ion chamber in water. The diode output factors agreed within 1% with the calculated values down to a 10 mm collimator. The output factors with the ion chamber decreased rapidly for collimators below 20 mm. These results were confirmed by the comparison to those from Monte Carlo methods with voxel sizes and materials corresponding to both detectors. It was demonstrated that the discrepancy in the 5 and 7.5 mm collimators for the diode detector is due to the water non-equivalence of the silicon material, and the dose fall-off for the ion chamber is due to its large active volume against collimators below 20 mm. The calculated stopping power ratios of the 60 mm collimator from the Cyberknife system (without a flattening filter) agreed within 0.2% with those of a 10 X 10 cm2 field from a conventional linear accelerator with a heavy flattening filter and the incident electron energy, 6 MeV. The difference in the stopping power ratios between 5 and 60 mm collimators was within 0.5% at a 10 cm depth in water. Furthermore, kQ values for the Cyberknife system were in agreement within 0.3% with those of the conventional 6 MV-linear accelerator for the cylindrical ion chambers with different wall material.