Complications of elbow arthroscopy

BACKGROUND: Although the potential complications of elbow arthroscopy, including nerve injuries, have been described, the prevalence of their occurrence has not been well defined. The purpose of this paper is to describe the serious and minor complications in a large series of patients treated with elbow arthroscopy. METHODS: A retrospective review of 473 consecutive elbow arthroscopies performed in 449 patients over an eighteen-year period was conducted. Of the 473 cases, 414 were followed for more than six weeks. The most common final diagnoses were osteoarthritis (150 cases), loose bodies (112), and rheumatoid or inflammatory arthritis (seventy-five). The arthroscopic procedures included synovectomy (184), debridement of joint surfaces or adhesions (180), excision of osteophytes (164), diagnostic arthroscopy (154), loose-body removal (144), and capsular procedures such as capsular release, capsulotomy, and capsulectomy (seventy-three). RESULTS: A serious complication (a joint space infection) occurred after four (0.8%) of the arthroscopic procedures. Minor complications occurred after fifty (11%) of the arthroscopic procedures. These complications included prolonged drainage from or superficial infection at a portal site after thirty-three procedures, persistent minor contracture of 20 degrees or less after seven, and twelve transient nerve palsies (five ulnar palsies, four superficial radial palsies, one posterior interosseous palsy, one medial antebrachial cutaneous palsy, and one anterior interosseous palsy) in ten patients. The most significant risk factors for the development of a temporary nerve palsy were an underlying diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis (p < 0.001) and a contracture (p < 0.05). There were no permanent neurovascular injuries, hematomas, or compartment syndromes in our series, and all of the minor complications, except for the minor contractures, resolved without sequelae. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that the prevalence of temporary or minor complications following elbow arthroscopy may be greater than previously reported. However, serious or permanent complications were uncommon.     

Radial Nerve Palsy After Arthroscopic Anterior Capsular Release for Degenerative Elbow Contracture

Because the use of arthroscopy has increased recently for the treatment of elbow lesions, reports of complications have become more common. Nerve injury after arthroscopic anterior capsular release is an extremely rare complication, with 4 reported cases worldwide. We usually use a sharp-tipped electrocautery device with a 0.5-mm diameter during arthroscopic capsular release. In this case, because the former was not prepared, we used a ball-tipped electrocautery device with a 3-mm diameter. Herein, we experienced a case of radial nerve palsy after arthroscopic anterior capsular release using a ball-tipped electrocautery device on a degenerative elbow contracture. We supposed that the electrocautery device caused transiently thermal injury of the radial nerve despite proper portal entry site, intra-articular distension, and gentle arthroscopic manipulation. Elbow arthroscopy remains a technically difficult procedure with the potential for neurologic complications. To perform surgery safely, knowledge of the regional neuroanatomy and a thorough understanding of proper instrument usage are required.     

Complete transection of the median and radial nerves during arthroscopic release of post-traumatic elbow contracture.

Arthroscopic debridement and capsular release was performed in a 57-year-old woman because of post-traumatic stiffness in the dominant right elbow joint. During this procedure, the median and radial nerves were completely transected. A few recent reports of small series have described encouraging results after arthroscopic capsular release of post-traumatic elbow contracture, but the present case demonstrates the inherent risk of damage to neurovascular structures.     

The Thrower's Elbow: Arthroscopic Treatment of Valgus Extension Overload Syndrome

Injury to the medial collateral ligament of the elbow (MCL) can be a career-threatening injury for an overhead athlete without appropriate diagnosis and treatment. It has been considered separately from other athletic injuries due to the unique constellation of pathology that results from repetitive overhead throwing. The past decade has witnessed tremendous gains in understanding of the complex interplay between the dynamic and static stabilizers of the athlete's elbow. Likewise, the necessity to treat these problems in a minimally invasive manner has driven the development of sophisticated techniques and instrumentation for elbow arthroscopy. MCL injuries, ulnar neuritis, valgus extension overload with osteophyte formation and posteromedial impingement, flexor pronator strain, medial epicondyle pathology, and osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) of the capitellum have all been described as sequelae of the overhead throwing motion. In addition, loose body formation, bony spur formation, and capsular contracture can all be present in conjunction with these problems or as isolated entities. Not all pathology in the thrower's elbow is amenable to arthroscopic treatment; however, the clinician must be familiar with all of these problems in order to form a comprehensive differential diagnosis for an athlete presenting with elbow pain, and he or she must be comfortable with the variety of open and arthroscopic treatments available to best serve the patient. An understanding of the anatomy and biomechanics of the thrower's elbow is critical to the care of this population. The preoperative evaluation should focus on a thorough history and physical examination, as wellas on specific diagnostic imaging modalities. Arthroscopic setup, including anesthesia, patient positioning, and portal choices will be discussed. Operative techniques in the anterior and posterior compartments will bereviewed, as well as postoperative rehabilitationandsurgical results. Lastly, complications will be reviewed.     

Osteoarthritis of the elbow: results of arthroscopic osteophyte resection and capsulectomy

Primary osteoarthritis of the elbow involves formation of bony spurs, loose bodies, and capsular contracture. This article presents the results of an arthroscopic technique for treatment of elbow arthritis in a series of patients. A retrospective chart review identified 41 patients with primary osteoarthritis in 42 elbows who underwent arthroscopic osteophyte resection and capsulectomy and who had more than 2 years of follow-up. Preoperative motion, pain, and Mayo Elbow Performance Index scores were compared with those at the latest follow-up. At an average follow-up of 176.3 weeks, significant improvements occurred in mean flexion, from 117.3 degrees preoperatively to 131.6 degrees (P < .0001); extension, from 21.4 degrees to 8.4 degrees (P < .0001); supination, from 70.7 degrees to 78.6 degrees (P = .0056); and Mayo Elbow Performance Index scores (P < .0001), with 81% good to excellent results. Pain decreased significantly (P < .0001). Complications were rare (n = 2) and included heterotopic ossification and ulnar dysesthesias. This procedure addresses the pathologic processes associated with arthritis of the elbow and was safe and effective in this series.     

Arthrolyse des Ellengelenks

Elbow stiffness is an unspecific response to any of a variety of injuries of the elbow joint, so that treatment must be preceded by an analysis of the possible causes for it to be successful. It has proved helpful to classify elbow contracture according to whether extrinsic or intrinsic disease is involved, because extrinsic stiffness has a better prognosis. The pathologic mechanism that is most frequently the cause of elbow stiffness lies in contracture and fibrosis of the capsule and/or heterotopic bone formation. The main aims of treatments are resection of the fibrotic joint capsule and/or of the heterotopic ossifications. Recent reports suggest that good results can be obtained with early surgical release combined with radiation therapy. Postoperative aftercare and conservative therapy include the use of adjustable splints. Dynamic splints are of no use in the treatment of the stiff elbow, and the outcome of mobilization during anaesthesia is poor. In cases of elbow stiffness arthroscopic surgery on the elbow joint is limited to the extraction of loose bodies and the removal of scar tissue or adhesions. Distraction arthroplasty is a new concept in the treatment of elbow stiffness, involving distraction and relaxation of the capsule by means of an external fixator. No evidence documenting the usefulness or otherwise of this method is yet available.     

O’Driscoll四步法关节镜下肘关节松解术治疗肘关节僵硬的疗效分析

目的评估O’Driscoll四步法关节镜下肘关节松解术治疗肘关节僵硬患者的方法与疗效。 方法2016年6月至2018年6月上海长海医院骨关节外科收治的肘关节僵硬患者25例采用O’Driscoll四步法完成肘关节镜松解术,其中男20例,女5例;年龄17~67岁,平均(42.8±18.1)岁。累及侧别:左9例,右16例。术前均应用体格检查、X线平片、CT三维重建及MRI完善检查并做好记录。比较肘关节活动度(range of motion,ROM)、视觉模拟评分(visual analogue scale,VAS)及Mayo肘关节功能评分(Mayo elbow performance score,MEPS)进行观察分析。采用SPSS 17.0软件对数据进行t检验分析。 结果对25例患者进行随访6~12个月,平均（8.7±0.8）个月,获得有效随访23例,伤口均一期愈合,无神经损伤、感染、血管损伤、关节不稳、骨化性肌炎等并发症。肘关节最大屈曲活动度：术前平均（86.5±22.1）°,术后平均（126.5±16.5）°;最大伸直活动度：术前平均（34.8±12.6）°,术后平均（11.3±13.1）°;总平均活动范围：术前平均（51.7±21.0）°,术后平均（115.2±9.2）°。VAS评分术前平均（3.0±2.1）分,术后平均（0.6±1.1）分;MEPS评分术前平均（60.5±13.4）分,术后平均（88.7±6.3）分;差异均具有统计学意义（P<0.01）。 结论O’Driscoll四步法关节镜下肘关节松解术可扩大肘关节镜适用范围,神经损伤发生率低,能有效改善ROM,减轻疼痛,术后早期、科学的康复训练同样重要。     

The stiff elbow

Etiologies of elbow contractures can be classified into intrinsic versus extrinsic causes. Posttraumatic elbow stiffness is the most common intrinsic cause and HO formation is the most common extrinsic cause of elbow contractures. Patients who sustain significant elbow trauma and have one or more risk factors for HO formation should be given prophylaxis against HO formation in the form of either indomethacin or radiation therapy. Early excision of HO has been shown to be safe and effective. Nonoperative measures are most effective if used within 6 months of contracture onset. These measures include physical therapy and an aggressive splinting program. If nonoperative measures are unsuccessful and the patient has functionally limiting elbow ROM, then surgical intervention should be considered. Careful preoperative assessment of the ulnar nerve is mandatory, as it may need to be transposed. Satisfactory results have been reported with arthroscopic elbow contracture releases. However, this procedure is technically challenging, with the potential for serious neurovascular complications. Satisfactory results have been published for open procedures as well. The direction of the greatest limitation of motion, the presence of ulnar nerve dysfunction, and the location of osteophytes all help to dictate which surgical approach should be selected.     

The post-traumatic stiff elbow: A review

Upper extremity function is highly dependent on elbow motion in order to adequately position the hand in space. Loss of this motion due to stiffness following trauma can cause patients substantial disability, leading to difficulties with performing activities of daily living. Post-traumatic elbow stiffness is challenging to treat, and therefore prevention is of paramount importance. Key measures that can be used to prevent elbow stiffness are early surgical intervention for fracture or joint instability, as well as active mobilisation, which helps to prevent oedema and an increase in viscosity of inflammatory exudates. Other options include splinting and continuous passive mobilisation.Once non-operative methods of addressing post-traumatic stiffness have been exhausted, arthrolysis of the stiff elbow can be performed via open or arthroscopic means depending on the type of pathology involved (intrinsic or extrinsic contracture) and experience of the surgeon with elbow arthroscopy. The particular open approach used depends on several factors, which include the formation and location of any heterotopic ossification present. Improvements in range of motion can be expected with both open and arthroscopic techniques, which can be effective and rewarding for patients. Post-operative rehabilitation, particularly early active mobilisation, should be considered essential in order to optimise patient outcomes following surgery.This review aims to explore elbow stiffness following traumatic aetiology, assessing its pathogenesis and prevention, as well as reviewing surgical treatment options and post-operative rehabilitation.     

Primary osteoarthritis of the elbow: current treatment options

In the elbow, as in other joints, primary osteoarthritis is characterized by pain, stiffness, mechanical symptoms, and weakness. But primary osteoarthritis of the elbow is unique in that there is relative preservation of articular cartilage and maintenance of joint space, with hypertrophic osteophyte formation and capsular contracture. Medical treatment and physical therapy may be initiated in the early stages of the disease process. Surgical treatment options include arthroscopic osteocapsular débridement, open ulnohumeral arthroplasty, distraction interposition arthroplasty, and total elbow arthroplasty. The potential for instability and loosening following total elbow arthroplasty in the setting of primary osteoarthritis limits the clinical application of this procedure. This patient population is generally younger than that recommended for total elbow arthroplasty, and their higher functional demands have limited the long-term success of this treatment option. The improvement in arthroscopic débridement techniques is perhaps the greatest advancement in the treatment of osteoarthritis of the elbow in recent years.     

Editorial Commentary: The “Mumford” & Sons: For Distal Clavicle Excisions,What Are Our Young Surgeons Doing,and How Well Are They Doing It?

The distal clavicle excision (DCE, also known as the “Mumford” procedure), either open or arthroscopic, is a time-honored procedure with generally excellent and predictable results. Surgeons have a choice to make regarding which technique to perform, and most surgeons choose the arthroscopic approach. This choice is justified, as complication rates are lower for arthroscopic DCE than for open DCE. A well-performed arthroscopic DCE should have a very low complication rate and high success rate.     

Arthroskopische Rückfußkorrekturarthrodese

Tibiotalocalcaneal arthrodesis (TTCA) is indicated for a variety of disorders, including end-stage osteoarthritis, severe deformities and complications after operative interventions on the upper and lower ankle joints. Due to the biomechanical advantages, TTCA is predominantly performed with curved retrograde intramedullary nails allowing compression before locking. Hindfoot arthrodesis is most commonly performed by extensive open surgical approaches. Despite a patient satisfaction rate greater than 80?%, current reviews have reported mean complication rates of more than 50?% with a pronounced variance in bone union rates. This is influenced by the sometimes severe preexisting diseases in this patient collective. A predictive risk assessment for complications following TTCA revealed a significantly increased risk in the presence of diabetes mellitus, revision surgery or preoperative ulceration. In these high-risk patients, a reduction of the invasiveness of the procedure could possibly reduce the complication rates. Arthroscopic TTCA therefore appears to be a promising alternative approach. Even though only few case reports and one case series have been published, in the total collective of 17 patients only one subtalar non-union and one minor complication were reported. Despite the limited evidence available, arthroscopic TTCA appears to be a promising therapy option in patients with an increased risk profile and comorbidities, such as critical soft tissue situations, plantar ulceration, peripheral arterial occlusive disease (PAOD) and diabetes mellitus.     

Neurological complications of elbow stiffness

Although complications following release of elbow contracture are rare, among these the neurological complications are the most common. Fortunately the majority of complications are transient, however, major complications including complete nerve transection at the level of the elbow have been reported especially after arthroscopic release. The ulnar nerve is mostly involved, rarely the radial nerve and very rarely the median nerve. This article describes the risk of nerve lesions in contracture release of the elbow and provides guidelines on how to avoid them.     

Neurologische Komplikationen bei Ellenbogensteife

Although complications following release of elbow contracture are rare, among these the neurological complications are the most common. Fortunately the majority of complications are transient, however, major complications including complete nerve transection at the level of the elbow have been reported especially after arthroscopic release. The ulnar nerve is mostly involved, rarely the radial nerve and very rarely the median nerve. This article describes the risk of nerve lesions in contracture release of the elbow and provides guidelines on how to avoid them.     

Editorial Commentary: Volition,Fear, and Faith: Elbow Arthroscopy and Nerve Injury

We strive to understand and present accurate risk assessment of transient and major nerve injuries to maintain our patients' faith as we choose to proceed with elbow arthroscopy. Our arthroscopic training, experience, and volume as well as patient obesity, osteoarthritis, and joint contracture should guide our decisions of which complex cases to expose our patients.     

The posttraumatic stiff elbow

The development of joint contracture is a well-recognized complication of elbow injury. Precise causes of the propensity of this joint for ankylosis are understood poorly. Yet, treatment is emerging and therefore the indications and willingness on the part of the surgeon to address this problem is improving. Limited open procedures have emerged during the past several years that are safe and effective by improving arcs of motion of 50-70 degrees in approximately 80-90% of patients. For severe injuries that involve the articular surface, interposition arthroplasty is less documented but has been shown to be effective but constitutes one of the most challenging technical procedures. Joint replacement arthroplasty generally should not be considered as a treatment for posttraumatic stiffness unless the patient is older than 65 years. The experience with this procedure indicates that with linked semiconstrained implants, approximately 80% of patients will achieve a near functional arc of motion. Arthroscopic intervention shows the greatest activity of investigation and clinical expansion. The learning curve is defined by a concern of complications to the neural structures and the fear of this complication has limited the application but the emerging documentation of the safeness of this option also has been associated with improved effectiveness. Therefore, arthroscopic intervention for the stiff elbow, particularly those with soft tissue extrinsic involvement, is emerging as the treatment of choice in many instances. The investigation regarding the medical treatment of altering the tendency of the soft tissue to go through such intense contracture is in its infancy but suggests that this could be a long-term solution at least for many patients.     

Arthroscopic release for the severely stiff elbow

Arthroscopic release for the stiff elbow has been widely used, but there are no reports limited to severe stiffness. The purpose of this study was to investigate the outcomes of severe cases. Ten patients with 10 severely stiff elbows defined by a limited arc of ≤ 60° underwent this arthroscopic release. Causes of stiffness were post-traumatic stiffness (one patient), osteoarthritis (three patients), and rheumatoid arthritis (six patients). Using arthroscopy, the capsule contracture and the intra-articular fibrosis were removed and the impinging osteophyte and part of the radial head were resected. For four patients with preoperative ulnar nerve symptoms or contracture of the posterior oblique ligament of the medial collateral ligament, mini-open ulnar nerve neurolysis and release of the posterior oblique ligament were performed. Patients were followed up for an average of 24 months. Arthroscopic release could be performed without any intraoperative complications. Range of motion for the elbow significantly improved from 95° of flexion and − 55° of extension to 109° of flexion and − 32° of extension. The Mayo Elbow Performance Score also improved from 56 points to 80 points. Two patients underwent a second arthroscopic surgery and gained further arc of motion. One patient showed osteophyte reformation and needed revision open surgery 1 year after the initial surgery. Arthroscopic release for the severely stiff elbow could improve range of motion. Careful attention should be given during surgery to avoid complications such as intramuscular bleeding or nerve damage.     

Arthroscopic release and latissimus dorsi transfer for shoulder internal rotation contractures and glenohumeral deformity secondary to brachial plexus birth palsy

BACKGROUND: Internal rotation contractures due to external rotation weakness secondary to brachial plexus birth palsy frequently lead to glenohumeral deformity and impaired shoulder function. Our surgical approach to treat these contractures relies on arthroscopic release for young children (less than three years old) and combines arthroscopic release with latissimus dorsi transfer for older children. We report the results for the first thirty-three children followed for a minimum of two years after such treatment. METHODS: Nineteen children with a mean age of 1.5 years (all younger than three years of age) underwent arthroscopic contracture release as the only primary procedure, and fourteen children with a mean age of 6.7 were also treated with a latissimus dorsi transfer. Passive external rotation with the arm at the side and passive and active elevation were measured for all patients preoperatively. Passive and active external rotation, internal rotation, and elevation were measured for all patients postoperatively. Magnetic resonance imaging was performed preoperatively and postoperatively to evaluate the status of the glenohumeral joint. RESULTS: Preoperative passive external rotation averaged -2 degrees for the children who underwent arthroscopic contracture release only and -24 degrees for those who also were treated with a latissimus dorsi transfer. Arthroscopic release achieved a marked increase in passive external rotation and a centered position of the glenohumeral joint at the time of surgery in all but the oldest child in the series, who had severe deformity. The contracture recurred in four of the younger children who had an isolated release, and this was treated with a repeat arthroscopic release and a secondary latissimus dorsi transfer. None of the children who had a primary latissimus dorsi transfer had recurrence of the contracture. At the time of follow-up, the mean passive external rotation was increased by 67 degrees (p < 0.005) in the fifteen children with a successful arthroscopic release, 81 degrees (p < 0.005) in those treated with a primary latissimus dorsi transfer, and 78 degrees in the four patients who were treated with a late latissimus dorsi transfer because the isolated arthroscopic release failed. The mean active elevation increased 12 degrees , 3 degrees , and 10 degrees , respectively, in the three groups. Internal rotation was not measured consistently preoperatively, but when it had been it was found to have decreased substantially postoperatively. Magnetic resonance imaging performed prior to the surgery showed a pseudoglenoid deformity in eighteen of the children. At two years, magnetic resonance images were available for fifteen of those children, and twelve of the images showed marked remodeling of the deformity. CONCLUSIONS: In children who are younger than three years of age, arthroscopic release effectively restores nearly normal passive external rotation and a centered glenohumeral joint at the time of surgery. In most of these children, external rotation strength is sufficient to maintain this range of motion and to improve glenoid development when preoperative deformity was present. The addition of a latissimus dorsi transfer in older children predictably results in similar improvements. Gains in active elevation are minimal. All children have a loss of internal rotation, which is moderate in most of them but is severe in some.     

Arthroscopic Latarjet: Indications,Techniques, and Results

The Latarjet procedure to treat instability was first described by the eponymous surgeon in 1954. Long-term results from this procedure have been favorable. In 2007, Lafosse et al. first described an all-arthroscopic technique for the Latarjet procedure.In the United States, the Latarjet procedure is most predictably indicated by surgeons in cases of significant glenoid bone loss, revision instability, and patients engaging in high-risk sport. In some European centers, the Latarjet has broader indications and is often also used as a first-line surgical intervention when conservative treatment has failed, including for those without bone loss or with multidirectional instability.• Achieve exposure of the inferior pole of coracoid and anterior glenoid rim; • coracoid is prepared; axillary nerve and brachial plexus are exposed; • coracoid portal is created; • coracoid is drilled and osteotomy is made; • coracoid transferred to anterior glenoid rim through split in subscapularis; • the bone graft is fixed in place with screws.Arthroscopic Latarjet can have a difficult learning curve compared with the open procedure. Both arthroscopic and open Latarjet have similar complication rates. The most common complications include graft fracture, non-union, and infection and are less than 2%. Arthroscopic Latarjet is reported to be less painful initially, but this equalizes by 1 month. Studies have shown that arthroscopic Latarjet results in excellent graft position. Recurrent instability for arthroscopic Latarjet ranges from 0.3% to 4.8% and is comparable with open Latarjet procedures.In summary, the arthroscopic Latarjet procedure results in less pain early, excellent coracoid graft position, and has a similar complication rate to open Latarjet.     

Simple dislocations of the elbow: evaluation and treatment

Simple dislocations of the elbow or dislocations occurring without an associated fracture are common injuries. Evaluation of these injuries must include an assessment of the entire involved upper extremity and a complete neurovascular examination. Principles of management include a prompt, controlled reduction, a determination of postreduction stability, and an immediate rehabilitation protocol that considers the stability of the joint following reduction. For those joints that are stable throughout the arc of motion, an unrestricted range of motion protocol can be started. When instability is present after reduction, the degree of instability determines the need for dynamic bracing, ligament repair or reconstruction, or the need for a hinged external fixator. The long-term results of these injuries are generally good, with nonoperative treatment producing equivalent or better results than operative treatment. Residual flexion contracture is the most common complication and can be diminished with the use of early range of motion. Other common complications include residual pain and heterotopic ossification, whereas recurrent instability occurs infrequently. Chronic dislocations of the elbow occur uncommonly in North America and Western Europe, but when they occur, reason-able results can be achieved with open reduction of the joint and the use of a hinged external fixator within I year following the dislocation.