Preschoolers' sleep behaviour: associations with parental hardiness, sleep-related cognitions and bedtime interactions

Background:  Childhood sleep problems which are prevalent in Western societies are associated with a wide range of emotional, cognitive and behavioural disturbances. Growing evidence suggests that parents play a pivotal role in children's sleep behaviour and that a parenting style which promotes self-regulation is beneficial. This study tested a unique model that included parental hardiness, sleep-related cognitions, bedtime interactions and child sleep behaviour.
Methods:  Parents ( N  = 110) with a child attending preschool (mean age = 3.81 years, SD  = .84) responded to a survey assessing their level of hardiness, sleep-related cognitions, bedtime interactions and their child's sleep behaviour and temperament. Secondary caregivers completed a survey assessing child sleep and temperament, and teachers/childcare workers also reported on child temperament.
Results:  In line with previous research, 37% of children in this community sample met criteria for a sleep problem. Regression analyses and structural equation modelling confirmed that low parental hardiness, problematic sleep-related cognitions and a greater number of parental interactions at bedtime significantly predicted child sleep problems, after considering child temperament.
Conclusions:  This study's theoretically driven model not only offers an explanation for what contributes to and maintains sleep problems in childhood but also suggests new areas for research. Importantly, the model can also be readily translated into clinical interventions to develop and enhance effective authoritative parenting.     

Sleep and childhood epilepsy

The inter-relationship between sleep and epilepsy is well recognized, Sleep is known to activate inter-ictal epileptiform discharges. A special timing of seizure in relation to sleep wake cycle is certainly a childhood epileptic syndrome. Children with epilepsy commonly have sleep problems which may be due to seizures or due to anxiety. Somnolence and diurnal sedation are frequent side effects of anti-epileptic drugs. thus epilepsy and its treatment can affect sleep leading to adverse effect on behavior, cognition and seizure control. Lack of sleep is an important trigger for epileptic seizures, therefore regular sleep must be a part of management strategy in children with epilepsy.     

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??Objective??To evaluate sleep habits and related affecting factors in children with epilepsy aged from 7 to 14 years old. Methods??By asking parents and guardians?? the children's sleep habit questionnaire was used to evaluate sleep habits of 162 children with epilepsy and 162 normal controls. Results??The mean score on the sleep questionnaire for children with epilepsy was 32.4±3.6 ??P < 0.01???? whereas for the normal control group it was 58.8±3.3 ??P < 0.01??. In children with epilepsy?? neuropsychomotor developmental delay had higher scores??49.9±7.3?? than that of appropriate development ??43.5±8.1??P < 0.01??. The group under polytherapy ??54.3±5.7?? had a higher score than that under monotherapy??42.9±6.3??. In addition?? the mean score for patients with daytime seizures was 44.1±7.6??and for those with nocturnal seizures it was 52.3±5.7 ??P < 0.01??. The mean score for children with partial seizures was 41.6±4.9??and for those with generalized seizures it was 47.4±8.7 ??P < 0.01??. Conclusion??Children with epilepsy are prone to have sleep disorders. Many factors?? such as neuropsychomotor development??seizure type??seizure frequency and therapy of seizures?? can affect their sleep habits.     

SIDS and other sleep-related infant deaths: expansion of recommendations for a safe infant sleeping environment

Despite a major decrease in the incidence of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) since the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) released its recommendation in 1992 that infants be placed for sleep in a nonprone position, this decline has plateaued in recent years. Concurrently, other causes of sudden unexpected infant death occurring during sleep (sleep-related deaths), including suffocation, asphyxia, and entrapment, and ill-defined or unspecified causes of death have increased in incidence, particularly since the AAP published its last statement on SIDS in 2005. It has become increasingly important to address these other causes of sleep-related infant death. Many of the modifiable and nonmodifiable risk factors for SIDS and suffocation are strikingly similar. The AAP, therefore, is expanding its recommendations from being only SIDS-focused to focusing on a safe sleep environment that can reduce the risk of all sleep-related infant deaths including SIDS. The recommendations described in this report include supine positioning, use of a firm sleep surface, breastfeeding, room-sharing without bed-sharing, routine immunization, consideration of a pacifier, and avoidance of soft bedding, overheating, and exposure to tobacco smoke, alcohol, and illicit drugs. The rationale for these recommendations is discussed in detail in this technical report. The recommendations are published in the accompanying "Policy Statement--Sudden Infant Death Syndrome and Other Sleep-Related Infant Deaths: Expansion of Recommendations for a Safe Infant Sleeping Environment," which is included in this issue (www.pediatrics.org/cgi/doi/10.1542/peds.2011-2220).     

Sleep fragmentation and evidence for sleep debt in alcohol-exposed infants

BACKGROUND:: Infants exposed prenatally to alcohol are at increased risk for poor neurodevelopmental outcome including Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. AIM:: To examine the relationship between prenatal alcohol exposure, sleep, arousal and sleep-related spontaneous motor movements in early infancy. STUDY DESIGN:: Low-income women (N=13) were interviewed regarding pre- and pregnancy rates of alcohol, cigarette smoking and other substance use in the perinatal period. Infants were examined in a laboratory nap study using EEG, videography and actigraphy at 6-8 weeks of age. Estimates of maternal pre- and pregnancy alcohol use were used to divide infants into high vs. low maternal alcohol use groups. SUBJECTS:: Mother-infant dyads recruited from a family practice clinic. OUTCOME MEASURES:: Sleep-related spontaneous movements, behavioral state, and maternal assessments of infant alertness and irritability. RESULTS:: Pre-pregnancy rates of alcohol consumption including binge drinking correlated with maternal report of poor infant alertness, and increased irritability. High maternal exposure groups showed increased sleep fragmentation, e.g. frequency and duration of wakefulness following sleep onset and decreased active sleep. Bout analysis of the temporal structure of sleep-related spontaneous movements showed significantly reduced bout duration associated with high maternal alcohol use. CONCLUSION:: These results present evidence that prenatal alcohol exposure disrupts postnatal sleep organization and suppresses spontaneous movements during sleep, and increased sleep fragmentation promotes sleep deprivation. Results are consistent with the SIDS model of chronic sleep debt and suggest that attenuated sleep-related movements should be examined as an important modulator of cardiorespiratory functions during sleep in high-risk groups.     

视频脑电监测在睡眠相关事件鉴别诊断中的应用价值

目的 评价视频脑电监测在诊断小儿睡眠相关事件中的实用价值.方法 对临床有睡眠相关事件发作的276例患儿进行夜间 8～12 h的视频脑电图动态监测,监测中对各种状态及事件进行标记,结束后将记录的EEG与临床录像资料同步回放分析.结果 276例患儿中,58例未监测到临床发作,218例监测到临床发作.监测到发作的218例患儿中伴脑电图异常放电诊断为癫痢者75例,占34.4%,不伴脑电图异常放电者143例,占65.6%.结论 视频脑电监测足明确小儿睡眠相关事件发作的种类、鉴别非癫(疒间)性与癫(疒间)发作的可靠检查方法.     

Melatonin does not influence sleep deprivation electroencephalogram recordings in children

The electroencephalogram (EEG) is an essential diagnostic tool in children with epilepsy. The recording of a sleep EEG can increase the yield of EEG recordings in certain epileptic syndromes. The primary aim of this study was to assess the influence of melatonin on EEG recording (quality, EEG characteristics) and to assess its efficacy to induce sleep. Children with epilepsy or non-epileptic neurological patients requiring sleep deprivation EEG studies were enrolled into this prospective study at a tertiary University Hospital study. Sequential recording of sleep deprivation EEGs both with and without prior administration of melatonin was performed. A total of 50 patients (27 with epilepsy, 23 non-epileptic neurological patients) were included in this study (median age 9.5 years; range 1–18 years; male 28). The quality and EEG characteristics (abnormal findings, depth of sleep) were not affected by the use of melatonin. In total, 92 of 100 EEGs were successfully performed without significant differences between the two groups (six failures with melatonin, two failures without melatonin; p = 0.289). Conclusions We conclude that melatonin does not alter the quality of sleep EEG studies in children with epilepsy or suspected epilepsy. Melatonin does not increase the rate of successfully performed EEG studies in sleep-deprived children.     

Sleep in children with psychiatric disorders

Although the exact nature of sleep disturbances present in children with psychiatric disorders has not been studied extensively, it is apparent that children with significant emotional and behavioral problems are more likely to experience sleep difficulties. Children with sleep-related issues that are limited to bedtime can be managed effectively with specific cognitive-behavioral interventions. Children with more pervasive anxiety (eg, PTSD or OCD, mood disorders such as major depression or bipolar disorder, or neurodevelopmental disabilities such as autism) require a more exhaustive evaluation, and most of them also need sleep problems to be managed by sleep professionals using combinations of psychotherapeutic and pharmacologic approaches.     

Sleep and obesity in children: a clinical perspective

Childhood obesity is an international epidemic with many long-term health consequences. The many comorbid conditions associated with obesity underscore the need to explore the different etiologies of obesity which may lead to potential therapeutic interventions. There is growing evidence both that obesity affects sleep, and that sleep patterns and disorders may have an effect on weight. Both respiratory and non-respiratory sleep disorders are associated with obesity; those that have gotten the most attention are the relationships between obesity and obstructive sleep apnea syndrome and short sleep duration. Other forms of sleep-disordered breathing and narcolepsy have also been associated with childhood obesity. Due to the many comorbidities of obesity, this subset of the pediatric population has frequent health care visits across a variety of subspecialties. It is likely that a non-sleep physician will be the first to recognize a sleep-related problem. The aim of this review was to discuss sleep disorders that may be encountered by the general pediatrician and the pediatric subspecialists in their obese pediatric patients and to describe the evidence that links these disorders to obesity.     

Sleep-disordered breathing in children

Sleep-disordered breathing, particularly the obstructive sleep apnea syndrome, is common during childhood. Complications include neurocognitive deficits, growth failure, and pulmonary hypertension. Nevertheless, sleep-disordered breathing is often unrecognized in children. New syndromes, such as the upper airway resistance syndrome, have recently been described. Polysomnography is invaluable for the evaluation of sleep-disordered breathing. Advances in diagnosis and management can alleviate much of the morbidity previously associated with sleep-related respiratory disorders.     

Primary neonatal thalamic haemorrhage and epilepsy with continuous spike-wave during sleep: a longitudinal follow-up of a possible significant relation.

Epilepsy with continuous spike-waves during sleep was diagnosed in a child who suffered primary neonatal thalamic haemorrhage, and who was followed from birth to 17 years of age. Early cognitive development was normal. Acquired behavioural problems and cognitive stagnation could be directly related to the epilepsy and not to the initial lesion and posthaemorrhagic hydrocephalus. This case and long-term follow-up data on a few children who suffered primary neonatal thalamic haemorrhage suggest that epilepsy with continuous spike-waves during sleep can be a sequel. Disturbances of thalamocortical interactions could play a role in the still poorly understood syndrome of epilepsy with continuous spike-waves during sleep.     

癫伴睡眠障碍患儿的睡眠结构特征及影响因素分析

目的了解癫伴睡眠障碍住院患儿的睡眠结构特征,探寻癫伴睡眠障碍的影响因素。方法选取2006年12月至2010年6月就诊的111例癫伴睡眠障碍患儿为病例组;同期89例癫不伴睡眠障碍患儿为对照组。采用多导生理参数睡眠监测仪对患儿睡眠情况进行监测,并使用自拟住院癫患儿睡眠生活质量问卷对患儿家长进行调查。采用Epidata3.0建立数据库,用SPSS13.0完成统计分析。结果两组患儿的性别和智力水平差异有统计学意义(P<0.01)。与对照组患儿相比,病例组患儿睡眠结构紊乱明显。经单因素分析显示,影响癫伴睡眠障碍的主要因素有:性别、智力水平、睡眠情况、家庭情况。多因素非条件Logistic回归分析显示,睡眠不安、多动或频繁觉醒、入睡困难、家庭睡眠环境不安静的癫患儿伴睡眠障碍的可能性大。女童、家长对患儿睡眠作息时间规律十分重视的癫患儿伴睡眠障碍的可能性小。结论癫伴睡眠障碍患儿睡眠结构改变明显,其睡眠障碍的发生受多种因素影响。对癫患儿睡眠情况应进行早期监测与指导,提高癫患儿的生活质量。     

Diagnostik von Schlafst?rungen und schlafbezogenen Atmungsst?rungen im Kindes- und Jugendalter im Schlaflabor

Sleep disorders and sleep-related disorders are a common problem in childhood. The referral to a pediatric sleep laboratory as well as the diagnostics and introduction of therapeutic measures are inconsistently applied. Therefore, in this consensus paper recommendations are formulated for when pediatric patients should be referred to a sleep laboratory and which preliminary examinations are necessary. Furthermore, recommendations are given on how many nights are necessary for a patient to be examined and which parameters should be investigated. Polysomnography (PSG), the gold standard for sleep-associated respiratory disorders, hypersomnia and sleep-related movement disorders, should normally be performed in pediatric cases as an inpatient. Observation of children during PSG must also be carried out by trained personnel. The examination and evaluation of the diagnostics in a sleep laboratory should be supervised by a pediatric sleep doctor or somnologist. Due to the much higher labor and cost-intensive procedure involved for a PSG in childhood, an adequate reimbursement is necessary.     

Sleep problems in children with common medical disorders

Sleep problems are common in many pediatric medical disorders and complicate management and patient outcomes. A wide range of conditions, including asthma, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell disease, gastroesophageal reflux, neuromuscular diseases, scoliosis, craniofacial abnormalities, obesity, and chromosomal disorders, have various sleep disturbances, including sleep-disordered breathing, ventilatory dysfunction, sleep-onset and sleep maintenance problems, and circadian rhythm disturbances. Given the adverse neurocognitive and physiologic outcomes associated with a deranged night's sleep, it is important for pediatricians to be able to anticipate, recognize, and appropriately manage these problems. This article reviews the known sleep-related problems of a few relatively common pediatric disorders.     

Neurocognitive dysfunction and sleep in children: from human to rodent

Sleep disturbance in children, whether because of poor sleep hygiene or sleep-related breathing disorders, is associated with significant behavioral and neurocognitive deficits. The mechanisms by which sleep disturbance contributes to the daytime manifestations are unclear, although it seems that sleep fragmentation and intermittent hypoxia are important. The long-term outcome for children with untreated diseases leading to sleep disruption is currently unknown. Increased awareness and early identification and treatment of conditions that lead to altered sleep should yield improved neurocognitive outcomes in affected children.     

Sleep and Behavior Problems in Children With Epilepsy

We designed a cross-sectional study to examine the association between sleep and behavior problems in toddlers and preschool-age children with epilepsy. We found that 71 (78.9%) children slept less than 10 hours in a 24-hour period according to the actigraphy, with 75 (83.3%) children waking for more than an hour during nocturnal sleep. Twenty-five (27.8%) children usually or sometimes had an inconsistent bedtime, and 24 (26.7%) did not sleep the same amount each day. Twenty-nine (32.2%) and 18 (20.0%) children had an internalizing and externalizing problem in clinical range, respectively. Sleep anxiety was significantly (p < .01) associated with increased internalizing and externalizing problems, even after the relevant epilepsy variables were controlled for. Findings from our study suggest that screening of sleep and behavior problems should be part of routine epilepsy care to identify children with problematic sleep and unrecognized sleep disorders and those at risk of behavioral dysfunction.     

Developmental language disorders and epilepsy

Abstract: The association of speech and language disorders with epilepsy is well-known in children with acquired epileptic aphasia, involving such entities as Landau—Kleffner syndrome (LKS), continuous spike wave in slow wave sleep (CSWSS) epilepsy and benign partial epilepsy with centra-temporal spikes (BPECTS). The possible association between epilepsy and a subgroup of children with developmental dysphasia is reported less frequently. Lack of controlled prospective studies of sleep electroencephalograms (EEG), and the use of medication, in children with developmental dysphasia, may deny appropriate treatment strategies to children with severe developmental speech and language disorders.     

Psychomotor development in infants with Prader-Willi syndrome and associations with sleep-related breathing disorders

Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) is a neurogenetic disorder with hypotonia, psychomotor delay, obesity, short stature, and sleep-related breathing disorders. The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between psychomotor development and sleep-related breathing disorders in PWS infants. Bayley Scales of Infant Development were performed in 22 PWS infants, with a median (interquartile range, IQR) age of 1.8 (1.1-3.4) y, and a body mass index SD score (BMISDS) of -0.5 (-1.3 to 1.6). We evaluated psychomotor development in relation to results of polysomnography. Median (IQR) mental and motor development was 73.1% (64.3-79.6%) and 55.2% (46.5-63.1%) of normal children, respectively. All infants had sleep-related breathing disorders, mostly of central origin. The apnea hypopnea index was not associated with psychomotor development. Only four infants had obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS). They had a significantly delayed mental development of 65.5% (60.0-70.3%) of normal. They had a median BMISDS of 1.4 (0.1-1.6), which tended to be higher than in those without OSAS. Our data indicate that psychomotor development in PWS infants is not related to central sleep-related breathing disorders, but infants with OSAS have more severely delayed mental development, suggesting that PWS infants should be screened for OSAS.     

癫癎儿童发作间期癫癎样放电特点初步研究

目的癫癎发作及癫癎样放电具有昼夜倾向,睡眠是诱发癫癎的重要因素之一,但睡眠触发癫癎的易感性在不同的睡眠时相对发作及发作间期癫癎样放电的影响并不相同。该文主要研究局灶性及全面性癫癎儿童发作间期睡眠和觉醒状态癫癎样放电的特点。方法采用24h动态脑电图、多导睡眠脑电图及长程视频脑电图仪描记48例原发性癫癎儿童的全夜睡眠(至少一个完整的睡眠周期)和睡眠前后觉醒状态的脑电资料,统计分析觉醒期及各睡眠期棘/尖波、棘/尖慢波等癫癎样波的放电指数的差异,比较局灶性和全面性发作类型癫癎儿童癫癎样放电阳性率的差异。结果局灶性癫癎儿童组发作间期脑电图癫癎样放电的阳性率高于全面性癫癎儿童组(16/25,64.0%)vs(9/25,36.0%),(P<0.05)。癫癎患儿非快速动眼睡眠各期(S1～S4)癫癎样波放电指数为21.13±19.96,19.59±17.76,22.85±18.99,20.37±16.63,均高于觉醒期的8.20±6.21(P<0.05)。非快速动眼睡眠期S3期癫癎样波放电指数明显高于快速动眼睡眠期(22.85±18.99vs12.91±10.95),(P<0.05)。结论局灶性癫癎儿童发作间期脑电图癫癎样放电的阳性率较全面性癫癎儿童癫癎样放电阳性率高。睡眠,尤其是非快速动眼睡眠期对癫癎儿童癫癎样放电具有易化作用。     

Sleep physiology and sleep-disordered breathing: the essentials

Sleep is essential, but poses a risk to breathing in some children. We have outlined the developmental changes in sleep patterns and physiology, and the evidence of deleterious effects of sleep deprivation and of sleep-related breathing disorder (SRBD). Some factors increase the risk of adenotonsillar surgery and should be excluded before contemplating surgery in a secondary care setting. Screening for SRBD is indicated in some conditions, which are discussed. Although simple studies may suffice for many patients, there are a few who need more detailed assessment with polysomnography. A managed clinical network would be the most appropriate model to ensure appropriate organisation and utilisation of scarce resources in this area.