静脉镇痛泵用于心脏术后疼痛的疗效观察及护理

[目的]探讨静脉镇痛泵应用于心脏术后疼痛的镇痛效果及不良反应的发生情况。[方法]将860例心脏手术病人随机分为两组,观察组700例术后给予静脉镇痛泵镇痛,对照组160例术后不予静脉镇痛泵镇痛,其余治疗两组相同,对术后镇痛效果及不良反应发生情况进行比较。[结果]在减轻心脏术后疼痛方面,观察组效果明显优于对照组。[结论]静脉镇痛泵用于心脏术后疼痛的镇痛效果良好,操作简单,使用方便。     

Pre-emptive analgesia and protective premedication. What is the difference?

The management of postoperative pain has been greatly informed by an increasing understanding of the basic science of pain transmission. The idea that analgesia given before the injury would be more effective than the same analgesia given after the injury was named pre-emptive analgesia. The evidence for this phenomenon in postoperative pain management has been very mixed. The methodological problems of such studies, and the difficulties of all the major outcome measures make comparison of the studies available difficult. In the 20 years since the concept was proposed there has been a change in anaesthetic practice that in effect incorporates pre-emptive analgesia with opiates. Evidence for any pre-emptive analgesic with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs is very poor, but the use of local anaesthetic blocks continues to be an area of study. Pre-emptive use of analgesic drugs is not the magic bullet to prevent postoperative pain, but is a strategy of use, among others for managing postoperative pain. Protective analgesia is a strategy that has grown out of the same desire to give drugs before injury to reduce the pain experienced afterwards. In this case the drugs under study have not been primary analgesics, but adjuvant drugs used commonly in the non-acute pain arena. In particular, the drug gabapentin, and to a lesser extent its related drug pregabalin. These drugs have been given by mouth as a pre-medicant, 1 hour before surgery in a variety of operations. A recent meta-analysis of the existing literature shows reduction of postoperative morphine consumption but little reduction in reporting of opiate side effects. Pregabalin, which has a better pharmacokinetic profile, may be a better alternative, and is currently under study. Neither gabapentin nor pregabalin are licensed for use in postoperative pain, and it is unlike that the manufacturers will seek such a licence.     

Does ketorolac produce preemptive analgesic effects in laparoscopic ambulatory surgery patients?

The purpose of this study was to determine whether intravenous ketorolac tromethamine could produce preemptive analgesia in patients undergoing laparoscopic gynecologic surgical procedures. Each patient's response to pain was measured by the mechanical visual analogue scale (M-VAS) and total analgesic use. By using a double-blind design, 49 patients were randomized into the preemptive group (n = 25), which received ketorolac preoperatively, or the control group (n = 24), which received ketorolac at the conclusion of surgery. Comparisons in pain scores using the M-VAS were made at 6 intervals in the postanesthesia care unit and 24 hours after the procedure. Further comparisons of the total fentanyl use and total postoperative oral analgesic requirements were analyzed. The preemptive group experienced higher pain scores and postoperative fentanyl use. Only the pain change from baseline between the 2 groups was statistically significant. Total fentanyl use and postoperative oral analgesic use was not statistically significant. Clinically, the preemptive administration of ketorolac to patients undergoing laparoscopic gynecologic surgery did not demonstrate preemptive analgesic effects.     

Comparison of ketamine and pethidine in experimental and postoperative pain

The analgesic efficiency of ketamine and pethidine was compared in experimental ischemic pain and postoperative pain after oral surgery. Naloxone 1.6 mg or placebo was given 5 min before the analgesic drug. The subjects recorded their pain on a visual analogue scale. Both ketamine 0.3 mg/kg and pethidine 0.7 mg/kg were effective as analgesics against the two types of pain studied. Naloxone prevented the analgesic effect of pethidine, but had no effect on ketamine analgesia. The results are in accordance with the hypothesis that the analgesic effect of ketamine is mediated by a non-opioid mechanism, possibly involving PCP-receptor-mediated blockade of the NMDA-receptor-operated ion channel.     

Perspectives on Intravenous Oxycodone for Control of Postoperative Pain

Intravenous (IV) analgesia has particular advantages in the immediate postoperative period. For example, IV administration results in a faster onset of pain relief and results in more predictable pharmacokinetics than does administration by other routes. It also allows for convenient dosing before or during surgery, permitting the initiation of effective analgesia in the early phase of the postoperative period. In addition, when patients are able to tolerate oral intake, they can be switched from IV to oral dosing based on maintaining the predictable analgesia established by the IV route. IV morphine is widely used for the control of postoperative pain, but there is a trend toward the use of oxycodone. Oxycodone (which may be mediated partly through kappa‐ as well as mu‐opioid receptors) offers several potential advantages. Published studies comparing IV oxycodone to other IV opioids for postsurgical pain report that oxycodone is a safe and effective analgesic. Some studies show that IV oxycodone may be associated with greater pain control, fewer or less severe adverse events, and faster onset of action, although the results are not consistent across all studies. Oxycodone has been reported to be safe in the geriatric and other special populations when adequate clinical adjustments are made. Thus, the clinical reports and oxycodone's pharmacologic profile make intravenous oxycodone a potentially important “new” old drug for postoperative pain control.     

Effects of a structured educational programme on patient‐controlled analgesia (PCA) for gynaecological patients in South Korea

Aims and objectives. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effects of a structured educational programme on the patient‐controlled analgesia device in terms of postoperative pain, dose of analgesics used, adverse reactions, patient knowledge and attitudes of patient‐controlled analgesia and patient satisfaction with postoperative pain management among gynaecological patients in South Korea. Background. Patient‐controlled intravenous analgesia has become the most common method to manage postoperative pain. Although the patient‐controlled analgesia device can be very effective in managing pain, patients using external pump delivery have several problems because of their lack of knowledge of patient‐controlled analgesia. To minimise these problems, nursing interventions that may decrease the number of problems should be developed and adopted into clinical practice. Design. A non‐equivalent control group, non‐synchronised design. Methods. The participants were 79 patients who had gynaecological surgery under general anaesthesia. Of the 79 patients, 39 were assigned to the experimental group and 40 to the control group. A day before surgery, 40 minutes of structured education on the patient‐controlled analgesia device was provided individually to the patients in the experimental group using both a CD‐ROM and brochure. Results. Pain level and adverse reactions were significantly lower in the experimental group than in the control group. Furthermore, the analgesic dose administered and the level of patient satisfaction with postoperative pain management increased significantly in the experimental group compared with the control group. Conclusion. A structured educational programme on the patient‐controlled analgesia can be an effective nursing intervention for pain management in gynaecological patients. Relevance to clinical practice. Nurses caring for the patients who are using the patient‐controlled analgesia should provide a structured educational programme to increase knowledge of pain management with patient‐controlled analgesia, patient satisfaction with pain management, as well as more effective management of the pain and adverse reaction caused by patient‐controlled analgesia.     

Pain management in the ambulatory surgical population

Effective postoperative analgesia is a fundamental goal of patient management in the ambulatory surgery setting. There is a physiologic, psychological, and economic cost to unrelieved pain in the postoperative patient. Understanding (1) the individual experience of pain, (2) common barriers to effective pain management, (3) the concept of balanced analgesia, (4) the types and modes of action of various analgesics available to the ambulatory population, and (5) the importance of thorough and organized means of pain assessment will help the perianesthesia nurse optimize analgesia for the postoperative patient. Severe postoperative pain continues to be a problem in ambulatory patients once they are discharged to the home environment. This article looks at fundamental concepts in pain management and integrates these ideas into a comprehensive strategy for the management of postoperative pain in the ambulatory patient.     

Higher doses of intraoperative analgesia are associated with lower levels of persistent pain and less analgesic consumption six months after total hip arthroplasty

Background

Persistent postoperative pain is a major health problem affecting nearly 30% of all patients undergoing total hip arthroplasty. Previous studies have demonstrated an association between the intensity of acute postoperative pain and persistent pain, but this association might be an epiphenomenon of insufficient intraoperative analgesia. In this study, we investigated the association between the intraoperative level of analgesia and the persistent postoperative pain 6 months after surgery.

Methods

We investigated 110 patients undergoing primary total hip arthroplasty under total intravenous general anaesthesia in a prospective cohort study. A highly standardized surgical and a standardized anaesthetic procedure were performed to reduce variability and psychosocial influences were investigated to adjust for confounders. Acute postoperative pain was controlled using patient‐controlled analgesia pumps. Postoperative pain intensities and analgesic requirements were monitored for 6 months following surgery.

Results

Of 105 patients included in the analysis, 32% continued using daily pain medication 6 months after surgery and reported a median pain level of 4/10. Multivariate analyses confirmed that the amount of intraoperative analgesia is a significant predictor of regular analgesic use and pain intensity 6 months after surgery.

Conclusions

Higher levels of intraoperative analgesia are associated with lower levels of persistent pain and less analgesic consumption 6 months after total hip arthroplasty. Persistent pain may be attributable to intraoperative nociception, which is likely not adequately assessed and suppressed using current clinical measures.

Significance

Our study suggests that lower doses of intraoperative analgesia are associated with higher levels of persistent postoperative pain. Persistent pain may be caused by intraoperative nociception, which is likely not adequately suppressed using current clinical standard analgesic measures.     

Analgesic effect of fentiazac after tooth extraction or minor oral surgery

A new nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent, fentiazac, was used for analgesia after tooth extractions and minor oral surgery in two Japanese dental hospitals. The drug was administered as a single oral dose of either 50 mg or 100 mg. The 50-mg dose provided rapid analgesic effect, but its effect lasted only two to three hours in a number of patients. At a dose of 100 mg, fentiazac proved effective for 85% of 53 patients, usually providing marked reduction of disappearance of pain within one hour or less. Among patients in whom pain reappeared, the mean time for recurrence was four hours, indicating a satisfactory duration of analgesic effect. One side effect--loss of appetite--was reported by one patient in the entire series of 71 subjects. It is concluded that fentiazac is a highly effective analgesic agent with a wide margin of safety for use after dental procedures that produce pain.     

The prevalence of postoperative pain in a cross-sectional group of patients after day-case surgery in a university hospital

OBJECTIVES: Although a great variety of surgical procedures are performed on an ambulatory basis, little is known about postoperative pain experience at home after ambulatory surgery. This study was performed to assess the prevalence and course of postoperative pain in the early postoperative period after ambulatory surgery. METHODS: Over a period of 4 months, 648 patients who underwent day-case surgery were included in our study. Data were collected with interviews and questionnaires. Pain intensity was measured using a visual analog scale (VAS) during 4 days after surgery. Side effects of anesthesia and analgesia techniques were also recorded. RESULTS: On the day of the operation, 26% of the patients had moderate to severe pain (defined as mean VAS >40 mm). Mean VAS-scores were greater than 40 mm in 21% on postoperative day (POD) 1, in 13% on POD 2, in 10% on POD 3, and in 9% on POD 4. Operations of nose and pharynx, abdominal operations, plastic surgery of the breasts, and orthopedic operations were the most painful procedures during the first 48 hours. DISCUSSION: This study showed that an important number of patients still experience moderate to severe pain in the postoperative period after day-case surgery even after a 4-day period. Furthermore, the type of operation should be considered when planning postoperative analgesia for ambulatory surgery.     

From theory to practice: preventing pain after cardiac surgery.

A pain management guideline was developed at the Royal Columbian Hospital, New Westminster, British Columbia, to prevent pain after cardiac surgery. The guideline was based on a wellness model and was predicted on the World Health Organization's analgesic ladder. Patients are given nonopioids around the clock and throughout the postoperative stay and are given an opioid to prevent procedural pain and treat breakthrough pain. In an evaluation of the guideline, records from 133 cardiac surgery patients were retrospectively reviewed. The type and dose of analgesics administered for the first 6 days after surgery, the effectiveness of the pain management plan, the occurrence of adverse effects, time to extubation, and postoperative lengths of stay were determined. Ninety-five percent of patients had effective pain relief. Almost all patients received acetaminophen around the clock. A total of 89% received indomethacin. All patients received opioids intermittently. Doses of opioids were converted to morphine oral equivalents, which peaked on day 1 after surgery (38 equivalents) and decreased sharply by day 2 (< 10 equivalents). Median postoperative length of stay was 5 days for patients who had bypass surgery and 6 days for patients who had valve surgery. This proactive, low-tech, low-risk, well-tolerated pain management approach is cost-effective, simple, and feasible to use. The findings support use of this approach in managing pain after cardiac surgery.     

Post-operative Weaning of Opioids After Ambulatory Surgery: the Importance of Physician Stewardship

Purpose of Review

We performed a systematic review to elucidate the current guidelines on weaning patients from opioids in the post-operative ambulatory surgery setting, and how pain management intraoperatively can impact this process.

Design

The review highlights the most up-to-date research from clinical trials, patient reports, and retrospective studies regarding both the current guidelines and weaning of opioid analgesia in ambulatory surgery setting.

Recent Findings

A striking paucity of convincing evidence exists on ambulatory postoperative pain management discontinuation or weaning of pain medications. However, retrospective and patient-reported studies suggest our approach should be similar to acute pain management strategies. The first steps include identifying high-risk patients and devising an appropriate pain plan. This may be accomplished by implementing multimodal analgesia, anticipating opioid needs, and the proper use of regional anesthesia. The increasing roles for Transitional Pain Service (TPS), Perioperative Surgical Home (PSH), and Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) may also guide us in this process.

Summary

Patients discharged from same-day surgery may lack the additional infrastructure of a hospital or medical establishment to monitor postoperative recovery. As such, weaning of pain medications in ambulatory surgery settings requires teams that are adept at treating varied patient populations through a tailored, novel means that invoke multimodal analgesia. Given the growth of surgeries moving toward the ambulatory sector, more data and practice guidelines are needed to direct postoperative pain regimen titration for the patients.

     

超前镇痛护理在食管癌术后病人疼痛控制中的应用

[目的]探讨超前镇痛在食管癌术后病人疼痛控制中的效果。[方法]随机将240例食管癌手术病人分为对照组组和观察组各120例,对照组实施常规镇痛护理,即术前行疼痛知识宣教,术后应用疼痛数字评价量表(NRS)评分法定时评估病人疼痛,根据评分行针对性镇痛处理;观察组在常规镇痛护理基础上,增加术前超前镇痛知识宣教,术后在执行各临床操作前行预见性疼痛评估,根据评分行预见性镇痛处理。比较两组病人术后24h,48h,72h内疼痛评分,术后肺部并发症发生率。[结果]两组病人术后疼痛程度低于对照组(P0.01),肺部并发症发生率低于对照组(P0.05)。[结论]超前镇痛可减轻食管癌病人术后疼痛程度,减少肺部并发症的发生,有利于病人早日康复。     

A study of pain management: patient controlled analgesia versus intramuscular analgesia

A clinical study examining the efficacy of Patient Controlled Analgesia compared with Intramuscular Analgesia was conducted. Patient Controlled Analgesia (PCA) Therapy was used in a select group of patients after major abdominal surgery. Specific parameters monitored were: total amount of analgesia required, incidence of pulmonary complications, assessment of pain level and sedation, patient activity, nursing time required for administration, safety, cost-effectiveness of both modes of analgesia and length of hospital stay. A questionnaire survey of both patients and nursing staff was done to evaluate responses. Conventional pain management often is inadequate with PRN administration of analgesic drugs due to the unpredictable and uneven patient absorption rate and the individual pain intensity and tolerance. The patient experiences a repetitive cycle of pain and sedation. The patient on PCA therapy is able to titrate his analgesic medication very effectively and maintain a state of analgesia without sedation. He is more responsive and able to participate in the early postoperative rehabilitation phase. The transition to oral medication usually was accomplished at 48 hours postoperative.     

Urinary function during epidural analgesia with methadone and morphine in post-cesarean section patients

Urinary function was assessed in 120 women after cesarean section under epidural anesthesia. Postoperative analgesia was obtained by means of epidurally administered methadone (40 patients) or morphine (40 patients). In the remaining 40 women, no narcotic drugs were given and postoperative pain was treated with intramuscular or oral non-opiate analgesics and sedatives. Both methadone and morphine provided potent postoperative pain relief. Following epidural methadone, mean urine volumes of the first two postoperative voidings were increased (543 +/- 38 ml and 571 +/- 31 ml) as compared with those after epidural morphine (219 +/- 25 ml and 218 +/- 18 ml) and with those of patients receiving non-opiate analgesics (319 +/- 28 ml and 414 +/- 30 ml). The mean time interval between the end of surgery and first voiding following methadone analgesia was shorter (336 +/- 27 min) than after morphine (582 +/- 18 min) or after non-opiate (448 +/- 28 min) analgesic drugs. Difficulty in micturition and the need for bladder catheterization were also decreased in the group with epidural methadone (2.5%) in comparison with the groups receiving morphine (57.5%) or non-opiate analgesic medicaments (12.5%). The use of epidural methadone for postoperative pain relief is advocated, both in view of its analgesic potency and of the low incidence of urinary disturbances.     

Stellenwert der nichtopioidanalgetika in der behandlung postoperativer schmerzen

At present, intramuscular application of opioids given on request is the most widespread form of postoperative analgesia. This method is widely recognized as often being inadequate, however. As advanced techniques of pain management, such as patient-controlled analgesia, are not generally available, the question arises as to whether non-opioid analgesics should routinely be used in order to improve this situation. A review of the literature indicates that apart from when used following abdominal surgery, in particular, operations on the biliary tract, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) offer effective postoperative pain control. Following minor surgery, the quality of analgesia can be better than that achieved with the weak opioids. The discrepancy between biliary tract operations and all other forms of surgery raises the question whether in the former case pain may have been partly due to spasms of visceral smooth muscle and hence be less readily amenable to the action of NSAIDS. A potential problem with the perioperative use of NSAIDS is that they inhibit platelet aggregation. Apart from tonsillectomy, there are no reports of increased intra- or postoperative bleeding when these drugs have been used for minor surgery, and only isolated reports following major operations. Despite these results, it must be borne in mind that most studies have been carried out on patients of ASA groups I and II and that conclusions drawn from the literature are not necessarily representative for the elderly and for patients with organ failure. Alternative substances have received relatively little attention. Of these, the pyrazolone derivative, metamizol, may well prove to be of value for patients in whom the use of NSAIDS is contraindicated or relatively ineffective such as after biliary tract surgery.     

Perioperative Pain Control in the Ambulatory Setting

Across the USA and various parts of the world, ambulatory surgery centers have transitioned to accepting patients with advanced ASA statuses, leading to a larger volume and higher complexity of surgeries performed, while still urging for same-day patient discharges. Inadequate postoperative pain management and opioid analgesia side effects, such as sedation, respiratory depression, and postoperative nausea and vomiting, are the most common complications and most common reasons for readmission after ambulatory surgery. The trend to limiting these complications and achieve a more rapid patient discharge currently emphasizes a multifactorial, balanced analgesia strategy. This article reviews the multimodal approach by detailing the important aspects of specific regional nerve blocks, nerve blockade with catheter techniques, acetaminophen, non-selective NSAIDs, Cox-2 inhibitors, membrane stabilizers, and corticosteroids. Pain management in the ambulatory surgery patient will thus be optimized with a thorough preoperative evaluation, recognizing intraoperative events, and implementing multiple analgesic modalities.     

开展镇痛教育对腹腔手术患者镇痛认知度及术后镇痛需求的影响

目的通过镇痛知识教育提高患者对术后镇痛的认知度，改善术后镇痛需求，有效控制术后疼痛。方法将168例择期腹腔手术患者按入院先后顺序随机分为实施镇痛教育组（观察组）和未实施镇痛教育组（对照组）各84例。对照组由责任护士在患者入院后一对一实施常规疼痛健康教育。观察组在对照组的基础上增加镇痛知识教育，统一教育内容，包括术后镇痛的临床意义、术后常用镇痛方法、镇痛方法优缺点、术后镇痛注意事项、止痛药的不良反应、』临床使用止痛药的常见误区，术前1d再次复述巩固教育内容。术前1d由责任护士用同一指导语进行问卷调查，评估患者对术后镇痛的认知度，术后2d内由责任护士询问和记录每位患者的不同镇痛需求。结果两组患者对镇痛的认知情况比较差异具有统计学意义。观察组患者对镇痛的临床意义、术后常用镇痛方法、镇痛方法优缺点、术后镇痛注意事项、使用止痛药的常见误区等知识的了解多于对照组（P〈0．005）。两组患者术后不同镇痛需求比较差异具有统计学意义，试验组患者术后使用PCA镇痛例数、肌内注射杜冷丁镇痛和口服止痛药的例数明显多于对照组（P〈0．005）。结论开展镇痛知识教育能显著提高患者对镇痛的认知度，提高患者术后镇痛的接受程度，改善患者术后镇痛需求，有效控制术后疼痛。     

两种镇痛方法在肘关节置换术后镇痛中的效果观察

目的:探讨肘关节置换术后1周内局部冷敷疗法和口服镇痛药物的镇痛效果及副作用.方法:将24例肘关节置换术后患者随机分为A组和B组各12例,A组采用一次性化学冰袋冷敷患侧肘关节、B组口服盐酸曲马多缓释片进行术后镇痛.分别于锻炼结束后0.5 h、1.0 h、2.0 h、3.0 h采用数字评价量表(NRS)进行镇痛效果评价.结果:功能锻炼后0.5 h、1.0 h NRS评分A组优于B组(P＜0.05);2.0 h、3.0 h NRS评分A组与B组比较差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论:肘关节置换术后应用局部冷敷疗法与口服镇痛药物在镇痛效果上均明显有效,但两种方法统计学比较有差异.