Activity deprivation-dependent induction of the proapoptotic BH3-only protein Bim is independent of JNK/c-Jun activation during apoptosis in cerebellar granule neurons

Bcl-2-interacting mediator of cell death (Bim), a proapoptotic BH3-only protein, plays a critical role in neuronal apoptosis. Cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) depend on activity for their survival and undergo apoptosis when deprived of depolarizing concentration of KCl. While it has been proposed that the activation of c-Jun NH2-terminal protein kinase (JNK)/c-Jun pathway contributes to the upregulation of bim gene in neurons subjected to survival signaling withdrawal, here we show that neither inhibition of JNK activity nor expression of dominant-negative c-Jun suppresses the expression of bim gene induced by activity deprivation in CGNs. We conclude that induction of bim gene is independent of the activation of JNK/c-Jun signaling pathway by activity deprivation during apoptosis of CGNs.     

Indirubin-3'-oxime inhibits c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase: anti-apoptotic effect in cerebellar granule neurons

Previous studies have demonstrated that c-Jun NH2-terminal protein kinase (JNK) plays a crucial role in neuronal apoptosis. Here, we report that indirubin-3'-oxime, a known effective inhibitor of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) and glycogen synthase kinase 3-beta (GSK-3beta), has a significant inhibitory effect on JNK. Kinase assay showed that indirubin-3'-oxime directly inhibited the activity of all three isoforms of JNK (JNK1, and JNK3) in vitro, with half inhibition dose (IC50) of 0.8 microM, 1.4 microM, and 1.0 microM, respectively. In cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs), indirubin-3'-oxime blocked c-Jun phosphorylation induced by potassium withdrawal and prevented CGNs from apoptosis in a dose dependent manner. However, inhibitors of CDKs and GSK-3beta were ineffective in reducing c-Jun phosphorylation both in vitro and in vivo, suggesting that indirubin-3'-oxime prevents c-Jun phosphorylation independent of its inhibition on CDKs and GSK-3beta. Our studies give further supports for JNK-targeting strategy in preventing neuronal apoptosis.     

E2F1 is not essential for apoptosis induced by potassium deprivation in cerebellar granule neurons

Cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) undergo apoptosis when deprived of depolarizing concentration of potassium. A key regulator of cell cycle, E2F1, was believed to play a role in CGN apoptosis induced by potassium deprivation. However, here we demonstrated that although E2F1 was upregulated in wild type CGNs following potassium deprivation, CGNs that derived from E2F1 knockout mice underwent apoptosis at a similar rate as the wild type. Analysis of the apoptotic neurons revealed no difference in the activation of caspase-3 in E2F1 null and wild type CGNs. Furthermore, knockdown of E2F1 expression by RNA interference failed to attenuate the apoptosis of CGNs induced by potassium deprivation. Taken together, our results suggested that E2F1 is not essential for apoptosis induced by potassium deprivation in CGNs.     

槲皮素通过抑制c-Jun的表达水平增强5-氟尿嘧啶对胃癌细胞凋亡的诱导活性

目的:探讨槲皮素是否能增强5-氟尿嘧啶对胃癌细胞凋亡的诱导活性并研究其机制。方法:MTT法检测5-氟尿嘧啶在槲皮素辅助治疗下对胃癌细胞系BGC-823的杀伤活性和半抑制浓度(IC50)。免疫共沉淀和Western blot实验检测5-氟尿嘧啶和槲皮素对BGC-823细胞c-Jun和Bcl-x L的表达水平、c-Jun磷酸化水平、caspase-9和caspase-3活化水平以及细胞色素C释放的影响。流式细胞术检测5-氟尿嘧啶在槲皮素辅助下对BGC-823细胞凋亡的影响。结果:槲皮素能明显提高5-氟尿嘧啶对BGC-823细胞的杀伤活性,降低5-氟尿嘧啶对BGC-823细胞的IC50。槲皮素处理明显抑制BGC-823细胞c-Jun的表达,并抑制BGC-823细胞中5-氟尿嘧啶诱导的c-Jun磷酸化及其与ATF2蛋白的相互作用,进而抑制5-氟尿嘧啶诱导的Bcl-x L蛋白上调。转染c-Jun过表达质粒后,槲皮素联合5-氟尿嘧啶对BGC-823细胞的杀伤活性受到显著抑制。同时,槲皮素能显著增强BGC-823细胞中5-氟尿嘧啶诱导的细胞色素C从线粒体中释放和caspase依赖的凋亡。结论:槲皮素可通过c-Jun/ATF2/Bcl-x L途径增强5-氟尿嘧啶对胃癌细胞线粒体途径凋亡的诱导活性。     

Neuroprotection by c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase inhibitor SP600125 against potassium deprivation–induced apoptosis involves the Akt pathway and inhibition of cell cycle reentry

Increasing evidence implicates the c-Jun NH₂-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway in the regulation of apoptosis in neurodegenerative diseases. In this study, we examined the neuroprotective effect of SP600125, a selective JNK inhibitor, in cerebellar granule cells (CGNs) deprived of serum and potassium (S/K withdrawal). S/K withdrawal-induced apoptosis occurs via activation of multiple pro-apoptotic pathways, including re-entry into the cell cycle, activation of glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK-3β), cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (cdk5/p35) breakdown, formation of cdk5/p25 and JNK activation. Here we demonstrate that SP600125 is able to inhibit all these pro-apoptotic pathways via the inhibition of JNK. Further, we found that JNK inhibition maintains the phosphorylation/activation of Akt after S/K withdrawal. For further confirmation of this result, we studied several targets downstream of Akt including GSK-3β, p-FOXO1, p-CREB and p35. In addition, the specific PI3K/Akt inhibitor LY294002 greatly diminished the antiapoptotic effects of SP600125 upon S/K withdrawal, confirming that Akt is involved in the neuroprotection achieved by SP600125. These results suggest that the maintenance of the PI3-kinase/Akt pathway by inhibition of JNK contributes to the prevention of apoptosis in rat cerebellar granule neurons mediated by S/K withdrawal. Furthermore, we propose that JNK may regulate the cell cycle re-entry by a novel mechanism that involves Akt, GSK-3β and Rb phosphorylation.     

c-Jun氨基末端激酶在脑缺血再灌注损伤中的作用

在生物体内,丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen-activated protein kinase,MAPK)是信号从细胞表面转导至细胞核内部的重要传递者,是一类丝/苏氨酸残基的蛋白激酶。目前在真核生物细胞中,已明确了4条MAPK信号转导通路,即细胞外信号调节蛋白激酶(extracellular signal-regulated protein kinases,ERK)通路、c-Jun氨基末端激酶(c-Jun N-terminal kinase,JNK)通路、p38通路及ERK5通路。JNK信号通路作为MAPK信号通路中重要的通路之一,参与了多种生理、病理过程,目前诸多研究表明其在脑缺血/再灌注损伤过程中尤其是程序性细胞死亡过程中起着重要的调控作用,本文就近年来对JNK通路的研究及JNK在脑缺血再灌注诱导的细胞凋亡中的作用及机制作一综述。     

MR-1通过抑制PERK/Nrf2途径减轻缺氧/复氧诱导的心肌细胞凋亡

 目的:研究肌原纤维形成调节因子1 (MR-1)是否通过抑制蛋白激酶R样内质网激酶 (PERK)/核因子E2相关因子2（Nrf2）途径减轻缺氧/复氧 (H/R)诱导的心肌细胞凋亡。方法:在原代培养的乳大鼠心肌细胞H/R模型上,采用Annexin V/PI双标法检测心肌细胞的凋亡率;以Western blotting检测葡萄糖调节蛋白78 (GRP78)、磷酸化PERK、Nrf2、活化转录因子4 (ATF4)、C/EBP同源蛋白 (CHOP)、Bcl-2和Bax的蛋白水平,研究过表达或敲低对于H/R致心肌细胞凋亡的影响及其与PERK/Nrf2途径活化的关系。结果:H/R引起心肌细胞凋亡;过表达MR-1减轻H/R引起的细胞凋亡 (P<0.01),下调CHOP表达 (P<0.05),引起Bcl-2/Bax值升高 (P<0.01),并抑制H/R诱导的PERK磷酸化、Nrf2核转位和ATF4表达 (P<0.01)。敲低MR-1加重H/R引起的细胞凋亡 (P<0.01)、CHOP表达上调 (P<0.05)和Bcl-2/Bax值下降 (P<0.01),并加重H/R诱导的PERK磷酸化 (P<0.05)、Nrf2核转位和ATF4表达 (P<0.01)。结论:MR-1通过抑制PERK/Nrf2途径而减轻缺氧/复氧诱导的心肌细胞凋亡。     

Brain ischemia/reperfusion-induced expression of DP5 and its interaction with Bcl-2, thus freeing Bax from Bcl-2/Bax dimmers are mediated by c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway

Our previous studies and those of others have strongly suggested that c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling pathway plays a critical role in ischemic brain injury. But the downstream mechanism that accounts for the proapoptotic actions of JNK during cerebral ischemia/reperfusion still remains to be investigated in detail. DP5, one of the mammalian BH3-only proteins, was cloned as a neuronal apoptosis-inducing gene. In this study, we examined the changes of protein level of DP5 and its interaction with Bcl-2 family members in a rat model of global ischemia and reperfusion by immunoprecipitation and immunoblotting; furthermore, we investigated the effect of activated JNK on DP5-signaling pathway. We show here that DP5 was induced and interacted with Bcl-2 but not Bax in hippocampal CA1 6 h to 3 days after ischemia, while the interaction of Bcl-2 with Bax decreased. Systemic administration of SP600125, a small molecule JNK-specific inhibitor, diminished the induction of DP5 and its interaction with Bcl-2 after 2 days of ischemia. At the same time, SP600125 increased the interaction of Bax with Bcl-2 after 2 days of reperfusion. Thus, these results indicate that brain ischemia/reperfusion-induced activation of DP5 signaling pathway is mediated by JNK in postischemic rat hippocampal CA1.     

Activation of caspase-3 and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase signaling pathways involving heroin-induced neuronal apoptosis

Heroin has been shown to cause spongiform leukoencephalopathy (SLE) in heroin addicts. In this study, we found that heroin could induce apoptosis of primary cultured cerebellar granule cells (CGC) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway is activated during CGCs apoptosis. Inhibiting JNK with a specific inhibitor, SP600125, reduced the levels of c-Jun phosphorylation and caspase-3 activation. We also showed that use the JNK inhibitor SP600125, caspase inhibitor z-VAD, or use SP600125 and z-VAD together significantly suppressed cell death induced by heroin. These results indicate that JNK pathway is an important mediator of the neurotoxic effects of heroin and inhibiting JNK activity may represent a new and effective strategy to treat heroin-induced SLE.     

Time-course of c-Jun N-terminal kinase activation after cerebral ischemia and effect of D-JNKI1 on c-Jun and caspase-3 activation

The c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling pathway plays a critical role in ischemic brain injury. The d-retro-inverso form of c-Jun N-terminal kinase-inhibitor (D-JNKI1), a cell-permeable inhibitor of JNK, powerfully reduces neuronal death induced by permanent and transient ischemia, even when administered 6 h after the ischemic insult, offering a clinically relevant window. We investigated the JNK molecular cascade activation in rat cerebral ischemia and the effects of D-JNKI1 on this cascade. c-Jun activation starts after 3 h after ischemia and peaks at 6 h in the ischemic core and in the penumbra at 1 h and at 6 h respectively. The 6 h c-Jun activation peak correlates well with that of P-JNK. We also examined the activation of the two direct JNK activators, MAP kinase kinase 4 (MKK4) and MAP kinase kinase 7 (MKK7). MKK4 showed the same time course as JNK in both core and penumbra, reaching peak activation at 6 h. MKK7 did not show any significant increase of phosphorylation in either core or penumbra. D-JNKI1 markedly prevented the increase of P-c-Jun in both core and penumbra and powerfully inhibited caspase-3 activation in the core. These results confirm that targeting the JNK cascade using the TAT cell-penetrating peptide offers a promising therapeutic approach for ischemia, raising hopes for human neuroprotection, and elucidates the molecular pathways leading to and following JNK activation.     

Inhibition of c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway improves cell viability in response to oxidant injury

Oxidant insults can lead to apoptotic and nonapoptotic cell death. Lung epithelial cells exposed to high levels of oxygen do not die via apoptosis, but through a much slower, morphologically distinct process involving cell and nuclear swelling. In contrast, H2O2 induces a rapid apoptotic cell death. We first assessed the effect of oxidant exposure on activator protein-1 (c-Jun and Fos) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) regulation in MLE12 cells. Both oxidants induced c-Jun and Fos expression, albeit with a different pattern of regulation-hyperoxia (95% O2) induced a biphasic response, whereas H2O2 (500 microM) induced a sustained response. We then examined the role of JNK by Western blot, JNK activity assay, and a pull-down assay and observed an identical pattern of regulation. To assess whether JNK functions in a pro-death or pro-survival capacity, we generated stable cell lines that constitutively express a dominant-negative mutation of JNK resulting in significant inhibition of JNK activity. Inhibition of the JNK pathway in this manner prevented hyperoxic and H2O2-induced cell death. These results demonstrate that hyperoxic cell death is pathway-driven and that both modes of death involve the JNK signaling pathway.