Cytosine deaminase versus thymidine kinase: a comparison of the antitumor activity

Abstract. The efficacy of single and combination suicide gene therapy was evaluated using a Herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase/ganciclovir system and Escherichia coli cytosine deaminase/5-fluorocytosine system on the rat prostate tumor cell line R3327 AT-1. The wild-type R3327 AT-1 cell line was transfected with a bifunctional fusion gene CDglyTK, which had the advantage that the resulting R3327 AT-1/CDglyTK cell line has the same amount of cytosine deaminase and thymidine kinase molecules. The percentage of viable R3327 AT-1/CDglyTK cells after 96 h incubation with 0.1 µg/ml ganciclovir or 10 µg/ml 5-fluorocytosine were 85% and 52% of controls, respectively. The cell viability when both suicide genes systems were activated was 43%. For in vivo analysis, Copenhagen rats were injected subcutaneously with R3327 AT-1 or R3327 AT-1/CDglyTK cells and treated with 30 mg/kg ganciclovir, 500 mg/kg 5-fluorocytosine, or both prodrugs together. A survival of 83% with the thymidine kinase/ganciclovir and 57% with the CD/5-FC could be observed. Only co-administration of thymidine kinase- and cytosine deaminase-specific prodrugs resulted in a 100% recurrence-free survival of the Copenhagen rats with a Dunning R3327 AT-1/CDglyTK prostate tumor and showed an additive cytotoxic effect. Calculation of the degree of activation and the potential of activation can be used to predict the success of a suicide gene therapy. In our case, the cytosine deaminase/5-fluorocytosine system had a low degree of activation (value 40), which is also found in the low response to 5- fluorocytosine in vivo (57% tumor free).     

AFP启动子驱动的yCD/TK双自杀基因靶向杀伤肝癌细胞的体内外研究

目的： 研究携带甲胎蛋白（AFP）启动子的酵母菌胞嘧啶脱氨酶/胸苷激酶（yCDglyTK）双自杀基因体内外靶向性杀伤肝癌细胞的效果和机制。方法: 构建携带AFP启动子的yCD/TK双自杀基因表达质粒。通过阳离子脂质体将携带AFP启动子的yCD/TK双自杀基因转染HepG2和SMMC7721细胞,用MTT法测定不同浓度氟胞嘧啶（5-FC）、更昔洛韦（GCV）及联合治疗的杀伤作用,用流式细胞仪检测细胞周期。建立裸鼠肝癌皮下种植瘤模型,观察自杀基因体内杀瘤效果以及细胞凋亡的情况。结果: 成功构建的携带AFP启动子的yCD/TK双自杀基因靶向性地在AFP阳性的HepG2细胞上表达,而AFP阴性的SMMC7721细胞无表达,GCV、5-FC及两者联合可有效抑制HepG2细胞生长,随药物浓度的增高而杀伤作用增强,药物间抑瘤效果比较是GCV＋5-FC＞5-FC＞GCV,而SMMC7721细胞的生长未受影响。体内实验可见GCV、5-FC及两药联合对转染后的HepG2细胞种植瘤有明显的抑制效果,并检测到明显的细胞凋亡,而对SMMC7721细胞种植瘤的生长无影响,种植瘤内极少凋亡细胞。结论: 携带AFP启动子的yCD/TK双自杀基因能有效地靶向性地杀伤AFP阳性的肝癌细胞,细胞凋亡可能是其杀伤的重要机制之一。     

不同药物敏感基因对人胰腺癌细胞PC-2的杀伤作用

目的比较单纯疱疹病毒胸腺嘧啶核苷激酶（ＨＳＶＴＫ）／丙氧鸟苷（ＧＣＶ）和胞嘧啶脱氨基酶（ＣＤ）／５氟胞嘧啶（５ＦＣ）两系统对人胰腺癌ＰＣ２细胞的杀伤作用。方法构建表达ＨＳＶＴＫ和ＣＤ基因的重组逆转录病毒载体,将其直接导入胰腺癌细胞;噻唑蓝法检测转化细胞对前体药物的敏感度及５０％细胞受抑制时的药物浓度,即ＩＣ５０值,并对旁观者效应进行观察比较。结果ＨＳＶＴＫ基因转化细胞ＩＣ５０值为（１０６±０１２）μｍｏｌ／Ｌ,比未转化细胞下降５５８倍;ＣＤ基因转化细胞ＩＣ５０值为（３３００±０９５）μｍｏｌ／Ｌ,比未转化细胞下降２５８倍;混合细胞中含１０％的转化细胞时,ＨＳＶＴＫ／ＧＣＶ系统的生长抑制率为３９％,ＣＤ／５ＦＣ系统为５０３％。结论两系统对胰腺癌细胞ＰＣ２均有很好的杀伤和抑制细胞生长作用,ＨＳＶＴＫ／ＧＣＶ系统的治疗指数较高,但其旁观者效应弱于ＣＤ／５ＦＣ系统     

腺病毒介导的CD-TK融合基因联合GCV和/或5-Fc对人膀胱癌细胞的杀伤作用

目的：研究腺病毒介导的CD—TK融合基因联合前体药物对人膀胱癌细胞的杀伤作用。方法：利用含有CD—TK融合基因及绿色荧光蛋白（GFP）基因的复制缺陷腺病毒转染人膀胱癌细胞株T-24细胞,GFP表达可作为转染是否成功的间接标志,PCR扩增后琼脂糖凝胶电泳检测转染后细胞CD及TK基因序列的表达情况。用丙氧鸟苷（GCV）和／或5氟胞嘧啶（5-FC）,作为前体药物,以四甲基偶氮唑蓝（MTT）法检测其对转染后T-24细胞的杀伤作用及旁观者效应。结果：腺病毒在体外能高效转染T-24细胞,72h转染效率可接近100％。GCV和／或5-FC均能有效杀伤转染后膀胱癌细胞,给予相同浓度前体药物时,联合用药组显示出较强的肿瘤杀伤作用。0．5mg／ml GCV、0．1mg／ml 5-Fc和GCV＋5-Fc作用于转染后T-24细胞72h细胞生存率分别为23．30％、20．63％、10．10％。旁观者效应杀伤实验表明5-Fc组较GCV旁观者效应明显,而联合用药组显示出更强的旁观者效应。利用Hoechst-PI双染色法检测经前体药物作用后转染细胞,各组均可见凋亡细胞,但联合用药组凋亡细胞较单一用药组多。结论：CD—TK融合基因联合应用GCV和／或5-Fc能有效杀伤膀胱肿瘤细胞,并存在较强的旁观者效应,其杀伤机制可能与凋亡相关,为适用于人膀胱癌的治疗提供一条新思路。     

Gene therapeutic approaches for medullary thyroid carcinoma treatment

Medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC), a neoplasm of thyroid C-cells, is characterized by dominant activating mutations in the RET proto-oncogene. Currently therapy is restricted to surgical removal of all neoplastic tissue lacking alternative forms of treatment such as chemotherapy or radiotherapy. Therefore MTC is a particularly attractive target for gene therapeutic approaches. Many promising gene therapy strategies have been used in various animal models of MTC, showing enhanced antitumoral efficacy, and these will hopefully extend our current standard of care in the future. These approaches can tentatively be subdivided into four groups: (a) Inhibition of oncogenic RET signaling, (b) suicide gene therapy, (c) immunotherapy, and (d) combination of immunotherapy and suicide approaches. To block oncogenic signal transduction dominant-negative RET mutants were delivered into tumor cells and found to possess strong antineoplastic activity, including tumor growth suppression and increased animal survival. Suicide gene therapeutic approaches applied to MTC treatment featured either gene transfer of herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase with concomitant application of ganciclovir or delivery of nitric oxide synthase II. Here antitumor effects were attributed to the occurrence of substantial bystander activities. Immunotherapy approaches comprised stimulation of immune response by delivery of interleukin 2 or 12. Finally, treatment with herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase/ganciclovir in combination with interleukin 2 was found to be superior over either treatment alone. This review discusses the various gene therapeutic approaches applied to MTC treatment in detail, gives an overview on the diverse vector systems used to achieve efficient transduction of thyroid cancer cells, and points out the strategies employed to accomplish target cell selective gene expression thereby contributing to enhanced safety of gene therapy for MTC     

Characterization of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae FCY1 gene encoding cytosine deaminase and its homologue FCA1 of Candida albicans

By functional complementation of a fcy1 null mutant of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we have cloned and characterized the FCY1 gene, encoding cytosine deaminase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and its homologue FCA1, encoding cytosine deaminase in Candida albicans. Disruption of FCY1 resulted in high resistance to 5-fluorocytosine (10⁻² M) and in total loss of cytosine deaminase activity. By contrast the transformation by FCY1 or FCA1 of the haploid FCY1-disrupted host strain restored sensitivity to 5-fluorocytosine and allowed growth on cytosine, as a source of pyrimidine, or ammonium. FCA1 as opposed to FCY1 contains an intron. FCA1 and FCY1 encode respectively 150- and 158- residue proteins of 60% identity. Both Fcy1p and Fca1p share common motifs with cytidine and CMP deaminases, but homology with cytosine deaminase of E. coli could not be detected. Received: 21 August / 12 September 1996     

Per os administration of 5-fluorocytosine is effective in the regression of CD-expressing liver metastases in rats

The bacterial cytosine deaminase (CD) gene, associated to the 5-fluorocytosine (5-FC) prodrug, is one of the more widely used suicide systems in gene therapy. Introduction of the CD gene within a tumor induces, after 5-FC treatment of the animal, a local production of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) resulting in intratumor chemotherapy. Destruction of the gene-modified tumor is then followed by the triggering of an anti-tumor immune reaction resulting in the regression of distant wild-type metastasis. In pre-clinical studies, 5-FC is generally administered by daily intraperitoneal injections. However, when used as an anti-fungal in humans, either IV or oral administration is used. In this study, we compared oral and intraperitoneal 5-FC administration in rats bearing a wild-type and a cytosine deaminase-expressing liver tumors. The results indicate that per os 5-FC administration is as efficient as intraperitoneal for the induction of CD-expressing tumor regression and the triggering of a distant bystander effect, acting on wild-type liver tumor and extra-hepatic metastasis.     

腺病毒介导的双自杀基因对胆管癌细胞的体外杀伤作用

目的：研究CD、HSV-tk融合基因对胆管癌细胞QBC939生长的抑制作用。 方法： 构建了含CD、HSV-tk融合基因的重组腺病毒载体，体外转染胆管癌细胞株QBC939，并与单基因转染对照，观察其对胆管癌细胞的杀瘤活性。 结果： CD、HSV-tk融合基因经体外转染可在人胆管癌细胞QBC939中高效表达。与单一自杀基因转染组对照，双基因组对前体药物的敏感性增强，表现出更强的抗肿瘤作用，具有更明显的旁观者效应（BSE）。 结论： CD/HSV-tk双自杀基因对胆管癌细胞具有更强的抗肿瘤作用，是一种较单自杀基因治疗更合理的研究方向。     

Osteosarcoma and chondrosarcoma as targets for virus vectors and herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase/ganciclovir gene therapy

Osteosarcoma and chondrosarcoma, the most prevalent primary malignant tumors of the bone, have been demonstrated to be potential target diseases for herpes simplex virus type 1 thymidine kinase (HSV-TK)/ganciclovir (GCV) suicide gene therapy. However, the utility of this gene therapy form for bone tumor cells has not been studied systematically. In this report we show, with the aid of three osteosarcoma cell lines (Saos-2, U-2-OS and MG-63) and one chondrosarcoma cell line (SW1353) that: i) these tumor cells were permissive for adenovirus- or lentivirus-mediated gene delivery; ii) the cell lines appeared to be good or excellent targets for HSV-TK/GCV gene therapy; and iii) the extent of HSV-TK/GCV cytotoxic effect correlated with the presence of the 'bystander effect' in these cells. Our results also suggest that lentiviruses are potential vectors for bone cancer gene therapy. They transduced all four cell lines with high efficiency and provided HSV-TK expression level that was sufficient for cytotoxicity and bystander effect comparable to that obtained with adenovirus vectors.     

A human-mouse somatic hybrid line selected for human deoxycytidine deaminase

A new selective medium has been developed for cells containing the enzyme deoxycytidine deaminase. This medium contains hypoxanthine, aminopterin, and 5-methyldeoxycytidine (HAM medium). To survive in the presence of the aminopterin, the cells must utilize deoxycytidine deaminase to convert the 5-methyldeoxycytidine to thymidine. The cells must also have thymidine kinase and hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase. A mouse cell line deficient in deoxycytidine deaminase has been isolated from a deoxycytidine kinase-deficient line, using 5-bromodeoxycytidine as the selective agent. A hybrid line between this double mutant and a human diploid fibroblast was isolated in HAM medium. The hybrid line contains the chromosomes expected of a human-mouse hybrid. The deoxycytidine deaminase isozyme patterns on cellogel show that the human-mouse hybrid cell line produces an enzyme with an electrophoretic mobility intermediate between that of the human and that of the mouse.     

5-氟胞嘧啶对胞嘧啶脱氨酶基因修饰的胰腺癌细胞凋亡的诱导作用

目的:探讨5-氟胞嘧啶(5-FC)对基因修饰的胰腺癌细胞凋亡的影响及特征。方法: 以腺病毒介导的胞嘧啶脱氨酶(CD)基因转染胰腺癌SW1990细胞,以Western blot检测目标基因蛋白水平表达,通过细胞形态学、脱氧核糖核酸(DNA)凝胶电泳和流式细胞术观察5-FC对表达CD基因的SW1990细胞凋亡的影响作用。结果: 以含CD基因的重组腺病毒转染的SW1990细胞,给予5-FC100 μmol·L^-1, 培养48 h,细胞出现典型的凋亡形态、DNA梯形改变及凋亡峰, 细胞在G₁,S 和G₂/M各期分别为64%、11%和7%,凋亡率达34.6%。结论:5-FC的上述诱导凋亡作用可能是胰腺癌CD基因疗法的重要机制。     

腺病毒介导胞嘧啶脱氨酶基因联合黄连素对直肠癌细胞的杀伤作用

目的:探讨黄连素联合腺病毒介导的胞嘧啶脱氨酶自杀基因(Ad-CD)对直肠癌细胞的体外杀伤作用.方法:用重组腺病毒介导外源CD基因转染到人直肠癌细胞株HR-8348,检测病毒的转导效率和CD基因表达.用四甲基偶氮唑盐(MTT法)检测黄连素联合Ad-CD基因对HR-8348细胞存活率及体外旁观者效应的影响.结果:在250μg/ml 5-氟胞嘧啶(5-FC)浓度下,0 1、 0 3、 3 0、 30 0μmol/L浓度的黄连素联合5-FC对直肠癌细胞生长抑制率分别为27 7%、 42 4%、 52 3%、 56 3%.3 0μmol/L浓度的黄连素可作为参考用药浓度.在转染和未转染CD基因的HR-8348混合体系中,黄连素联合CD/5-FC对直肠癌细胞具有更强的抑制作用.结论:黄连素可以增强自杀基因系统对直肠癌细胞的杀伤作用,可作为一种增效剂应用于直肠癌的治疗.     

Tumor cell apoptosis induces tumor-specific immunity in a CC chemokine receptor 1- and 5-dependent manner in mice

The first step in the generation of tumor immunity is the migration of dendritic cells (DCs) to the apoptotic tumor, which is presumed to be mediated by various chemokines. To clarify the roles of chemokines, we induced apoptosis using suicide gene therapy and investigated the immune responses following tumor apoptosis. We injected mice with a murine hepatoma cell line, BNL 1ME A.7R.1 (BNL), transfected with HSV-thymidine kinase (tk) gene and then treated the animals with ganciclovir (GCV). GCV treatment induced massive tumor cell apoptosis accompanied with intratumoral DC infiltration. Tumor-infiltrating DCs expressed chemokine receptors CCR1 and CCR5, and T cells and macrophages expressed CCL3, a ligand for CCR1 and CCR5. Moreover, tumor apoptosis increased the numbers of DCs migrating into the draining lymph nodes and eventually generated a specific cytotoxic cell population against BNL cells. Although GCV completely eradicated HSV-tk-transfected BNL cells in CCR1-, CCR5-, or CCL3-deficient mice, intratumoral and intranodal DC infiltration and the subsequent cytotoxicity generation were attenuated in these mice. When parental cells were injected again after complete eradication of primary tumors by GCV treatment, the wild-type mice completely rejected the rechallenged cells, but the deficient mice exhibited impairment in rejection. Thus, we provide definitive evidence indicating that CCR1 and CCR5 and their ligand CCL3 play a crucial role in the regulation of intratumoral DC accumulation and the subsequent establishment of tumor immunity following induction of tumor apoptosis by suicide genes.     

Liver damage using suicide genes. A model for oval cell activation

Liver regeneration from the facultative hepatic stem cells, the oval cells, takes place in situations in which liver regeneration from pre-existing hepatocytes is prevented. Different models have been used to stimulate oval cell response. Many of them involve the use of carcinogenic agents with or without partial hepatectomy. In this study we show that adenovirus-mediated gene transfer of the suicide gene thymidine kinase followed by ganciclovir administration caused hepatotoxicity of variable intensity. Rats with moderate elevation in serum transaminases recovered normal liver architecture few weeks after adenovirus injection. In contrast, rats with severe liver damage exhibited a marked and persisting activation of oval cells accompanied by ductular hyperplasia. In some rats, such lesion eventually evolved to cholangiofibrosis and in one rat to cholangiocarcinoma. Deposition of fibronectin and increased number of hepatic stellate cells were found in association with oval cells and cholangiofibrotic lesions. Hepatocyte growth factor was hyperexpressed in the livers with intense oval cell response or ductular proliferation, suggesting a participation of this factor in those lesions. In summary, our data demonstrate activation of oval cell response after gene transfer of thymidine kinase followed by ganciclovir administration. These findings indicate that high doses of this therapy causes liver damage together with an impairment in hepatocellular regeneration.     

HSV_1tk/GCV基因治疗系统的旁观者效应观察

探讨逆转录病毒 (retrovirus ,RV )载体介导的单纯疱疹病毒胸苷激酶 (HSV1 tk )基因转染 ,联合抗病毒药物核苷类似物羟甲基无环鸟苷 (ganciclovir,GCV )对人卵巢上皮癌细胞系TYK细胞杀伤过程中所产生的旁观者效应。采用脂质体介导法将PLNTK5质粒转入包装细胞PA317后 ,以滴度最高的PA317病毒上清液感染TYK细胞 ,遗传霉素G418筛选后 ,得到带有HSV1 tk基因的TYK细胞。将细胞按不同比例混合培养后 ,给予 10 μg/mlGCV ,4d后用MTT法计算细胞存活率 ,观察旁观者效应。PLNTK5质粒成功转入PA317细胞 ,病毒滴度最高者为 6× 10 5cfu/ml。用病毒上清液感染TYK细胞 ,成功地得到了表达HSV1 tk的卵巢癌细胞株TYK/tk。混合培养结果显示 ,TYK/tk细胞占混合细胞 10 %时 ,低浓度的GCV就可使一半以上的细胞杀死 ,证明了HSV1 tk/GCV治疗方法存在着旁观者效应。逆转录病毒可介导HSV1 tk基因转入TYK细胞并获稳定表达 ,HSV tk/GCV系统存在旁观者效应。     

胞嘧啶脱氨酶基因/5-氟胞嘧啶联合在肿瘤基因治疗中的研究

临床上许多恶性肿瘤在外科手术治疗后还需进一步作化学治疗,但目前化疗的应用受到很大的限制,其中一个重要原因就是化疗药物在体内杀伤肿瘤细胞的同时往往对机体正常细胞也有明显的损害,使患者难以耐受大剂量的化疗,无法达到彻底杀灭肿瘤细胞的目的,这也是长期以来恶性肿瘤复发率居高不下的原因之一。 因此,如何减少化疗的副作用成为人们普遍关注的问题。近年来随着分子生物学的发展,肿瘤的基因治疗已开始应用于临床。而利用基因治疗与化疗联合应用方案提高化疗的敏感性和选择性,减轻副作用,改善肿瘤疗效,是当前基因治疗中的一个…     

Interfering with cellular signaling pathways enhances sensitization to combined sodium butyrate and GCV treatment in EBV-positive tumor cells

The combination of sodium butyrate (NaB) and ganciclovir (GCV) was considered to be a noteworthy therapeutic strategy in Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated cancers. However, clinical studies have indicated that an extremely high dose of NaB is required to obtain the expected curative efficacy. This obviously limits the practical clinical application of the two drugs combined. In this study, we investigated the possibility of sensitizing tumor cells to NaB and GCV mediated cytotoxicity by modulating intracellular signal pathways. The results showed that the disruption of Ras/Raf activity by expressing dominant negative forms of both Ras and Raf-1 did not alter the potency of the NaB and GCV combination in the EBV-positive cell line, B95-8. However, blocking Akt activity by expressing its dominant negative form remarkably promoted NaB and GCV-mediated cytotoxicity via a thymidine kinase (TK)-independent mechanism. Interestingly, it was found that the constitutive activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 1 (MEKK1) dramatically enhanced the sensitization of the cells to the combination of NaB and GCV, accompanied with an increase in TK expression in B95-8 cells. These results suggest that interfering with either the Akt or MEKK1 signaling pathway may be a useful therapeutic strategy to increase the sensitivity of EBV-positive tumor cells to the combination of NaB and GCV.     

Herpesvirus saimiri pathogenicity enhanced by thymidine kinase of herpes simplex virus

Herpesvirus saimiri can be used as an efficient gene expression vector for human T lymphocytes and thus may allow applications in experimental leukemia therapy. We constructed recombinant viruses for the functional expression of the thymidine kinase (TK) of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV) as a suicide gene. These viruses reliably allowed the targeted elimination of transduced nonpermissive human T cells in vitro after the administration of ganciclovir. To test the reliability of this function under the most stringent permissive conditions, in this study we analyzed the influence of the prodrugs ganciclovir and acyclovir in common marmosets on the acute leukemogenesis induced by either wild-type herpesvirus saimiri C488 or by a recombinant derivative expressing TK of HSV. Antiviral drug treatment did not influence the rapid development of acute disease. In contrast, the presence of the HSV tk gene resulted in a faster disease progression. In addition, HSV TK-expressing viruses showed faster replication than wild-type virus in culture at low serum concentrations. Thus, HSV TK accelerates the replication of herpesvirus saimiri and enhances its pathogenicity. This should be generally considered when HSV TK is applied as a transgene in replication-competent DNA virus vectors for gene therapy.     

Regression of experimental liver tumor after distant intra-hepatic injection of cytosine deaminase-expressing tumor cells and 5-fluorocytosine treatment

Cytosine deaminase (CD) gene of E. coli converts the non-toxic compound 5-fluorocytosine (5-FC) into 5-fluorouracil. We have introduced a vector expressing the CD gene in a rat colon carcinoma cell line. Expression of the CD gene confers 5-FC sensitivity to these cells in vitro and in vivo. In a bifocal model consisting in a simultaneous engrafment of a CD+ tumor on one lobe of the liver and a wild-type parental tumor on the opposite lobe, treatment with 5-FC results in regression of both type of tumors, indicating the existence of a distant bystander effect.