Prototype heel effect compensation filter for cone-beam CT

The prototype cone-beam CT (CBCT) has a larger beam width than the conventional multi-detector row CT (MDCT). This causes a non-uniform angular distribution of the x-ray beam intensity known as the heel effect. Scan conditions for CBCT tube current are adjusted on the anode side to obtain an acceptable clinical image quality. However, as the dose is greater on the cathode side than on the anode side, the signal-to-noise ratio on the cathode side is excessively high, resulting in an unnecessary dose amount. To compensate for the heel effect, we developed a heel effect compensation (HEC) filter. The HEC filter rendered the dose distribution uniform and reduced the dose by an average of 25% for free air and by 20% for CTDI phantoms compared to doses with the conventional filter. In addition, its effect in rendering the effective energy uniform resulted in an improvement in image quality. This new HEC filter may be useful in cone-beam CT studies.     

Monte carlo simulation of x-ray spectra in diagnostic radiology and mammography using MCNP4C

The general purpose Monte Carlo N-particle radiation transport computer code (MCNP4C) was used for the simulation of x-ray spectra in diagnostic radiology and mammography. The electrons were transported until they slow down and stop in the target. Both bremsstrahlung and characteristic x-ray production were considered in this work. We focus on the simulation of various target/filter combinations to investigate the effect of tube voltage, target material and filter thickness on x-ray spectra in the diagnostic radiology and mammography energy ranges. The simulated x-ray spectra were compared with experimental measurements and spectra calculated by IPEM report number 78. In addition, the anode heel effect and off-axis x-ray spectra were assessed for different anode angles and target materials and the results were compared with EGS4-based Monte Carlo simulations and measured data. Quantitative evaluation of the differences between our Monte Carlo simulated and comparison spectra was performed using student's t-test statistical analysis. Generally, there is a good agreement between the simulated x-ray and comparison spectra, although there are systematic differences between the simulated and reference spectra especially in the K-characteristic x-rays intensity. Nevertheless, no statistically significant differences have been observed between IPEM spectra and the simulated spectra. It has been shown that the difference between MCNP simulated spectra and IPEM spectra in the low energy range is the result of the overestimation of characteristic photons following the normalization procedure. The transmission curves produced by MCNP4C have good agreement with the IPEM report especially for tube voltages of 50 kV and 80 kV. The systematic discrepancy for higher tube voltages is the result of systematic differences between the corresponding spectra.     

Simulation of the effect of anode surface roughness on diagnostic x-ray spectra

To simulate the effect of the condition of the anode surface on x-ray output the surface roughness of anode fragments of replaced clinical x-ray tubes was determined. A mean roughness of 1.32-5.22 microm giving effective tungsten absorption layers of up to 18 microm thickness in the direction of the x-ray beam was determined. X-ray spectra were then simulated using the measured surface profiles. The most prominent effect was the reduction of the kerma output of the tube with increasing roughness (-33% at 50 kV tube voltage and 5 microm roughness). The effects of beam hardening are less pronounced. The corresponding changes in the spectral parameters are generally small but largest for tube voltages up to 70 kV. For higher voltages the increased photon attenuation above the K-edge of tungsten reduces the effects of roughness on spectral parameters. The maximum shifts in mean photon energy of about 1 keV and in HVL of about 0.2 mm Al were obtained for an anode roughness of 5 microm.     

Improved photomultiplier tube for positron emission tomography

The paper describes an investigation in which it is shown that small positive voltage pulses applied to an external conductor placed against the photocathode of a photomultiplier tube can be used to switch the photocathode completely off for the duration of the pulses. This suggests that a photomultiplier tube with a multisegment photocathode can be constructed, the individual cathode segments of which can be switched off independently by means of such pulses. A theoretical explanation for the effect is provided with the aid of a simple circuit model for the photocathode. Analysis of the model also shows that it is possible to identify the particular cathode segment in which a photon is detected when a pulse is recorded at the phototube's anode. A phototube with these characteristics can have important implications for positron emission tomography, as it can provide improved spatial resolution, simultaneous multislice capability and the ability to eliminate distortion due to dead-time effects at high count rates.     

Quantifying the effect of off-focal radiation on the output of kilovoltage x-ray systems

In a typical x-ray tube, off-focal radiation is mainly generated by the backscattered electrons that reenter the anode outside the focal spot. In this study, BEAMnrc (an EGSnrc user-code) is modified to simulate off-focal radiation. The modified BEAMnrc code is used to study the characteristics of electrons that backscatter from the anode, and to quantify their effect on the output of typical x-ray systems. Results show that the first generation backscatter coefficient is approximately 50% for tungsten anodes at diagnostic energies, and approximately 38% for molybdenum anodes at mammography energies. Second and higher generations of backscatter have a relatively minor contribution. At the patient plane, our simulation results are in excellent agreement with experimental measurements in the literature for the spectral shape of both the primary and the off-focal components, and also for the integral off-focal-to-primary ratio. The spectrum of the off-focal component at the patient plane is softer than the primary, which causes a slight softening in the overall spectrum. For typical x-ray systems, the off-focal component increases patient exposure (for a given number of incident primary electrons) by up to 11% and reduces the half-value layer and the effective energy of the average spectrum by up to 7% and 3%, respectively. The larger effects are for grounded cathode tubes, smaller interelectrode distance, higher tube voltage, lighter filtration, and less collimation. Simulation time increases by approximately 30% when the off-focal radiation is included, but the overall simulation time remains of the order of a few minutes. This study concludes that the off-focal radiation can have a non-negligible effect on the output parameters of x-ray systems and that it should be included in x-ray tube simulations for more realistic modeling of these systems.     

Closed bore XMR (CBXMR) systems for aortic valve replacement: investigation of rotating-anode x-ray tube heat loadability

In order to improve the safety and efficacy of percutaneous aortic valve replacement procedures, a closed bore hybrid x-ray/MRI (CBXMR) system is proposed in which an x-ray C-arm will be positioned with its isocenter approximately =1 m from the entrance of a clinical MRI scanner. This system will harness the complementary strengths of both modalities to improve clinical outcome. A key component of the CBXMR system will be a rotating anode x-ray tube to produce high-quality x-ray images. There are challenges in positioning an x-ray tube in the magnetic fringe field of the MRI magnet. Here, the effects of an external magnetic field on x-ray tube induction motors of radiography x-ray tubes and the corresponding reduction of x-ray tube heat loadability are investigated. Anode rotation frequency f(aode) was unaffected when the external magnetic field Bb was parallel to the axis of rotation of the anode but decreased when Bb was perpendicular to the axis of rotation. The experimental f(anode) values agreed with predicted values to within +/-3% over a Bb range of 0-30 mT. The MRI fringe field at the proposed location of the x-ray tube mounted on the C-arm (approximately =4 mT) reduced f(anode) by only 1%, so x-ray tube heat loadability will not be compromised when using CBXMR systems for percutaneous aortic valve replacement procedures. Eddy current heating power in the rotor due to an MRI fringe field was found to be two orders of magnitude weaker than the heating power produced on the anode due to a fluoroscopic exposure, so eddy current heating had no effect on x-ray tube heat loadability.     

A Monte Carlo simulation model of mammographic imaging with x-ray sources of finite dimensions

A simulation model of mammographic x-ray sources with finite size has been developed. The model is based on Monte Carlo methods and it takes into account the electron penetration inside the anode, the anode geometry and material, as well as the resulting heel effect and the spectral and spatial distribution of x-rays. This x-ray source simulation model has been embedded into an earlier developed simulation package of a mammography unit. The main outputs of this model are Monte Carlo generated images that correspond to the irradiation of properly designed phantoms. In this way it is possible to make studies of the influence of x-ray source characteristics on MTF. This paper presents the development of the mammographic x-ray source model, accompanied by a set of simulation studies concerning the influence of magnification effects as well as that of the x-ray spatial and spectral distribution on the mammographic spatial resolution for a certain magnification factor (m = 1.4). The validity level of the model, as well as its limitations and perspectives, rise through comparisons with experimental and theoretical data.     

Quantification of the effect of kvp on edge-enhancement index in phase-contrast radiography

This study was performed to measure the dependence of edge-enhancement in polychromatic phase-contrast radiography on x-ray tube operating voltage. Measurements of edge enhancement were made at tube voltages from 40 to 86 kVp using a tungsten anode x-ray tube with a nominal focal spot size of 100 micrometers. A relatively weak attenuating, sharp edge consisting of a thin lucite sheet (3 mm) in air was imaged utilizing phase-contrast radiography (PC-R). PC-R images were acquired at different radiographic techniques in which x-ray tube voltage was varied from 40 to 86 kVp. The image receptor was a single emulsion x-ray mammography cassette. Optical density profiles across the edge of the object were obtained using a film digitizer and edge-enhancement indices were calculated. Increasing kVp resulted in a gradual decrease of the edge-enhancement index. Even at the highest kVp (86), however, important edge-enhancement effects were evident. While there is some degradation in the edge-enhancement effect of phase-contrast radiography at higher kVps, the decrease from 40 to 86 kVp is relatively small (11%). Our results suggest that further investigation into the role of phase-contrast imaging at higher kVp values for the purpose of patient dose reduction while still realizing the advantage of phase-contrast effects for improved soft-tissue detectability is warranted.     

Effect of toe and heel elevation on calculated tendon strains in the horse and the influence of the proximal interphalangeal joint

The sagittal alteration of hoof balance is a common intervention in horses, with corrective shoeing being one of the most frequently applied methods of managing tendonitis. However, the effect of toe or heel elevation on tendon strains is poorly understood. This study aimed to examine the effect of toe and heel wedges on the superficial digital flexor tendon, deep digital flexor tendon, and the third interosseous muscle or suspensory ligament strains using in vivo data and an accurate subject-specific model. Kinematic data were recorded using invasive markers at the walk and trot. Computerized tomography was then used to create a subject-specific model of an equine distal forelimb and strains were calculated for the superficial digital flexor tendon, the deep digital flexor tendon accessory ligament and the suspensory ligament for seven trials each of normal shoes, and toe and heel elevation. As the proximal interphalangeal joint is often ignored in strain calculations, its influence on the strain calculations was also tested. The deep ligament showed the same results for walk and trot with the heel wedge decreasing peak strain and the toe wedge increasing it. The opposite results were seen in the suspensory ligament and the superficial digital flexor tendon with the heel wedge increasing peak strain and the toe wedge decreasing it. The proximal interphalangeal joint was shown to be influential on the strains calculated with normal shoes and the calculated effect of the wedges. Our results imply that corrective shoeing appears to decrease strain in the tendon being targeted; the possibility of increases in strain in other structures should also be considered.     

Study of increased radiation when an x-ray tube is placed in a strong magnetic field

When a fixed anode x-ray tube is placed in a magnetic field (B) that is parallel to the anode-cathode axis, the x-ray exposure increases with increasing B. It was hypothesized that the increase was caused by backscattered electrons which were constrained by B and reaccelerated by the electric field onto the x-ray tube target. We performed computer simulations and physical experiments to study the behavior of the backscattered electrons in a magnetic field, and their effects on the radiation output, x-ray spectrum, and off-focal radiation. A Monte Carlo program (EGS4) was used to generate the combined energy and angular distribution of the backscattered electrons. The electron trajectories were traced and their landing locations back on the anode were calculated. Radiation emission from each point was modeled with published data (IPEM Report 78), and thus the exposure rate and x-ray spectrum with the contribution of backscattered electrons could be predicted. The point spread function for a pencil beam of electrons was generated and then convolved with the density map of primary electrons incident on the anode as simulated with a finite element program (Opera-3d, Vector Fields, UK). The total spatial distribution of x-ray emission could then be calculated. Simulations showed that for an x-ray tube working at 65 kV, about 54% of the electrons incident on the target were backscattered. In a magnetic field of 0.5 T, although the exposure would be increased by 33%, only a small fraction of the backscattered electrons landed within the focal spot area. The x-ray spectrum was slightly shifted to lower energies and the half value layer (HVL) was reduced by about 6%. Measurements of the exposure rate, half value layer and focal spot distribution were acquired as functions of B. Good agreement was observed between experimental data and simulation results. The wide spatial distribution of secondary x-ray emission can degrade the MTF of the x-ray system at low spatial frequencies for B < 0.5 T.     

A search for optimal x-ray spectra in iodine contrast media mammography

The aim of this work was to search for the optimal x-ray tube voltage and anode-filter combination in digital iodine contrast media mammography. In the optimization, two entities were of interest: the average glandular dose, AGD, and the signal-to-noise ratio, SNR, for detection of diluted iodine contrast medium. The optimum is defined as the technique maximizing the figure of merit, SNR2/AGD. A Monte Carlo computer program was used which simulates the transport of photons from the x-ray tube through the compression plate, breast, breast support plate, anti-scatter grid and image detector. It computes the AGD and the SNR of an iodine detail inside the compressed breast. The breast thickness was varied between 2 and 8 cm with 10-90% glandularity. The tube voltage was varied between 20 and 55 kV for each anode material (Rh, Mo and W) in combination with either 25 microm Rh or 0.05-0.5 mm Cu added filtration. The x-ray spectra were calculated with MCNP4C (Monte Carlo N-Particle Transport Code System, version 4C). A CsI scintillator was used as the image detector. The results for Rh/0.3 mmCu, Mo/0.3 mmCu and W/0.3 mmCu were similar. For all breast thicknesses, a maximum in the figure of merit was found at approximately 45 kV for the Rh/Cu, Mo/Cu and W/Cu combinations. The corresponding results for the Rh/Rh combination gave a figure of merit that was typically lower and more slowly varying with tube voltage. For a 4 cm breast at 45 kV, the SNR2/AGD was 3.5 times higher for the Rh/0.3 mmCu combination compared with the Rh/Rh combination. The difference is even larger for thicker breasts. The SNR2/AGD increases slowly with increasing Cu-filter thickness. We conclude that tube voltages between 41 and 55 kV and added Cu-filtration will result in significant dose advantage in digital iodine contrast media mammography compared to using the Rh/Rh anode/filter combination at 25-32 kV.     

Quantification of breast density with spectral mammography based on a scanned multi-slit photon-counting detector: a feasibility study

A simple and accurate measurement of breast density is crucial for the understanding of its impact in breast cancer risk models. The feasibility to quantify volumetric breast density with a photon-counting spectral mammography system has been investigated using both computer simulations and physical phantom studies. A computer simulation model involved polyenergetic spectra from a tungsten anode x-ray tube and a Si-based photon-counting detector has been evaluated for breast density quantification. The figure-of-merit (FOM), which was defined as the signal-to-noise ratio of the dual energy image with respect to the square root of mean glandular dose, was chosen to optimize the imaging protocols, in terms of tube voltage and splitting energy. A scanning multi-slit photon-counting spectral mammography system has been employed in the experimental study to quantitatively measure breast density using dual energy decomposition with glandular and adipose equivalent phantoms of uniform thickness. Four different phantom studies were designed to evaluate the accuracy of the technique, each of which addressed one specific variable in the phantom configurations, including thickness, density, area and shape. In addition to the standard calibration fitting function used for dual energy decomposition, a modified fitting function has been proposed, which brought the tube voltages used in the imaging tasks as the third variable in dual energy decomposition. For an average sized 4.5 cm thick breast, the FOM was maximized with a tube voltage of 46 kVp and a splitting energy of 24 keV. To be consistent with the tube voltage used in current clinical screening exam (～32 kVp), the optimal splitting energy was proposed to be 22 keV, which offered a FOM greater than 90% of the optimal value. In the experimental investigation, the root-mean-square (RMS) error in breast density quantification for all four phantom studies was estimated to be approximately 1.54% using standard calibration function. The results from the modified fitting function, which integrated the tube voltage as a variable in the calibration, indicated a RMS error of approximately 1.35% for all four studies. The results of the current study suggest that photon-counting spectral mammography systems may potentially be implemented for an accurate quantification of volumetric breast density, with an RMS error of less than 2%, using the proposed dual energy imaging technique.     

Investigation on the load-displacement curves of a human healthy heel pad: In vivo compression data compared to numerical results

The aims of the present work were to build a 3D subject-specific heel pad model based on the anatomy revealed by MR imaging of a subject's heel pad, and to compare the load-displacement responses obtained from this model with those obtained from a compression device used on the subject's heel pad. A 30 year-old European healthy female (mass=54kg, height=165cm) was enrolled in this study. Her left foot underwent both MRI and compression tests. A numerical model of the heel region was developed based on a 3D CAD solid model obtained by MR images. The calcaneal fat pad tissue was described with a visco-hyperelastic model, while a fiber-reinforced hyperelastic model was formulated for the skin. Numerical analyses were performed to interpret the mechanical response of heel tissues. Different loading conditions were assumed according to experimental tests. The heel tissues showed a non-linear visco-elastic behavior and the load-displacement curves followed a characteristic hysteresis form. The energy dissipation ratios measured by experimental tests (0.25±0.02 at low strain rate and 0.26±0.03 at high strain rate) were comparable with those evaluated by finite element analyses (0.23±0.01 at low strain rate and 0.25±0.01 at high strain rate). The validity and efficacy of the investigation performed was confirmed by the interpretation of the mechanical response of the heel tissues under different strain rates. The mean absolute percentage error between experimental data and model results was 0.39% at low strain rate and 0.28% at high strain rate.     

X-ray spectroscopy in mammography with a silicon PIN photodiode with application to the measurement of tube voltage

In this work a silicon PIN photodiode was employed in mammographic x-ray spectroscopy under clinical and nonclinical conditions. Measurements have been performed at a constant potential tungsten anode tube, adapted in this work with molybdenum filters to produce a beam like that used in mammography, and at a clinical equipment with a molybdenum anode tube by using an additional aluminum filtration. The corrected x-ray spectra were in full agreement with those generated by theoretical models published in the literature and agree well with those measured with a CdZnTe detector for tube voltages less than 30 kV. The half value layer and the relative exposure values calculated from the corrected silicon PIN photodiode spectra were in agreement with those measured with an ionization chamber. These results indicate that a silicon PIN photodiode are very suitable for mammographic x-ray spectroscopy. As an application, the voltage (kV) applied to mammographic x-ray equipment has been measured through the evaluation of the spectra high energy cut off. Uncertainties evaluated for the voltage values calculated from the measured spectra are less than 0.13% for voltages in the range 20-35 kV. The low uncertainties associated with the obtained results in this work point out that the method employed can be accurately used for calibration of noninvasive mammographic kVp meters.     

Performance of a static-anode/flat-panel x-ray fluoroscopy system in a diagnostic strength magnetic field: a truly hybrid x-ray/MR imaging system

Minimally invasive procedures are increasing in variety and frequency, facilitated by advances in imaging technology. Our hybrid imaging system (GE Apollo flat panel, custom Brand x-ray static anode x-ray tube, GE Lunar high-frequency power supply and 0.5 T Signa SP) provides both x-ray and MR imaging capability to guide complex procedures without requiring motion of the patient between two distant gantries. The performance of the x-ray tube in this closely integrated system was evaluated by modeling and measuring both the response of the filament to an externally applied field and the behavior of the electron beam for field strengths and geometries of interest. The performance of the detector was assessed by measuring the slanted-edge modulation transfer function (MTF) and when placed at zero field and at 0.5 T. Measured resonant frequencies of filaments can be approximated using a modified vibrating beam model, and were at frequencies well below the 25 kHz frequency of our generator for our filament geometry. The amplitude of vibration was not sufficient to cause shorting of the filament during operation within the magnetic field. A simple model of electrons in uniform electric and magnetic fields can be used to estimate the deflection of the electron beam on the anode for the fields of interest between 0.2 and 0.5 T. The MTF measured at the detector and the DQE showed no significant difference inside and outside of the magnetic field. With the proper modifications, an x-ray system can be fully integrated with a MR system, with minimal loss of image quality. Any x-ray tube can be assessed for compatibility when placed at a particular location within the field using the models. We have also concluded that a-Si electronics are robust against magnetic fields. Detailed knowledge of the x-ray system installation is required to provide estimates of system operation.     

乳腺非介入管电压影响因素研究

目的:参照IEC 61676标准,研究随着管电压的增加,距离、过滤条件和阳极角等影响因素在两种乳腺辐射场（Mo/Mo和W/Rh）中的改变引起Fluke X2和RTI piranha 657两类非接入测量仪器测量结果的变化及差异。方法:利用介入法测量确定管电压稳定性,在两种乳腺辐射场情况下改变距离、过滤条件和阳极角进行非介入管电压测量,根据测量结果计算两种辐射场和两类仪器测量结果的变化趋势,并用蒙特卡罗模拟获得两种辐射场条件下因为过滤变化达到仪器的计数比值差异（R值变化率）并分析原因。结果:在W/Rh辐射场下,即使距离和阳极角差异较大、过滤条件发生微小变化,对两类仪器测量结果的影响符合IEC 61676的要求,都在0.5 kV以内;但是在Mo/Mo辐射场下,同样过滤条件变化引起的两类仪器测量结果差异较大,其中Fluke X2测量结果最大变化甚至达到了1.6 kV。结论:当对乳腺非介入管电压测量仪器进行校准时,各个实验室应该考虑确立统一的校准距离、球管阳极角和过滤要求作为重要的参考条件,特别是在Mo/Mo辐射场下对过滤的限制异常重要,以减少对非介入管电压平均峰值电压测量结果的影响,保证各个校准实验室间结果的一致性,提高可比性;建议进行乳腺非介入管电压测量的时候尽量不使用平均峰值电压来反应测量结果,而应使用实用峰值电压。     

Compatibility of interventional x-ray and magnetic resonance imaging: feasibility of a closed bore XMR (CBXMR) system

A next-generation interventional guidance system is proposed that will enable intraprocedural access to both x-ray and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) modalities. This closed bore XMR (CBXMR) system is comprised of a conventional radiographic rotating anode x-ray tube and a direct conversion flat panel detector on a rotating gantry positioned adjacent to the bore of a 1.5 T MRI. To assess the feasibility of such a system, we have investigated the degree of compatibility between the x-ray components and the MRI. For /-->B(ext)/ < 200 G the effect on the radiographic tube motor was negligible regardless of the orientation of -->B(ext) with respect to the motor axis of rotation--the frequency of anode rotation remained within 6% of the 3400 rpm frequency measured at 0 G. For /-->B(ext)/ >2400 G the anode slowed down to below 2400 rpm at all orientations. At intermediate B(ext), the frequency of rotation varied between 2400 and 3200 rpm, showing a strong dependence on orientation, with -->B(ext) perpendicular to the tube axis having a much stronger effect on the rotation frequency than -->B(ext) parallel to the tube axis. In contrast to the effect of -->B(ext) on the induction motor, parallel -->B(ext) had a stronger detrimental effect on the cathode-anode electron beam, whose path was at 16 degrees to the tube axis, than the perpendicular -->B(ext). Parallel -->B(ext) of several hundred Gauss had a defocusing effect on the x-ray focal spot. -->B(ext) perpendicular to the electron beam shifted the beam without significant defocusing. We have determined that the direct conversion flat panel detector (FPD) technology is not intrinsically sensitive to -->B(ext), and that the modifications required to make the proposed FPDs MRI compatible are minimal. The homogeneity of the MRI signal in the normal field of view was not significantly degraded by the presence of these x-ray components in the vicinity of the MRI bore entrance.     

乳腺非介入管电压影响因素研究

目的:参照IEC 61676标准,研究随着管电压的增加,距离、过滤条件和阳极角等影响因素在两种乳腺辐射场（Mo/Mo和W/Rh）中的改变引起Fluke X2和RTI piranha 657两类非接入测量仪器测量结果的变化及差异。方法:利用介入法测量确定管电压稳定性,在两种乳腺辐射场情况下改变距离、过滤条件和阳极角进行非介入管电压测量,根据测量结果计算两种辐射场和两类仪器测量结果的变化趋势,并用蒙特卡罗模拟获得两种辐射场条件下因为过滤变化达到仪器的计数比值差异（R值变化率）并分析原因。结果:在W/Rh辐射场下,即使距离和阳极角差异较大、过滤条件发生微小变化,对两类仪器测量结果的影响符合IEC 61676的要求,都在0.5 kV以内;但是在Mo/Mo辐射场下,同样过滤条件变化引起的两类仪器测量结果差异较大,其中Fluke X2测量结果最大变化甚至达到了1.6 kV。结论:当对乳腺非介入管电压测量仪器进行校准时,各个实验室应该考虑确立统一的校准距离、球管阳极角和过滤要求作为重要的参考条件,特别是在Mo/Mo辐射场下对过滤的限制异常重要,以减少对非介入管电压平均峰值电压测量结果的影响,保证各个校准实验室间结果的一致性,提高可比性;建议进行乳腺非介入管电压测量的时候尽量不使用平均峰值电压来反应测量结果,而应使用实用峰值电压。     

Comparison of clinical and physical measures of image quality in chest and pelvis computed radiography at different tube voltages

The aim of this work was to study the dependence of image quality in digital chest and pelvis radiography on tube voltage, and to explore correlations between clinical and physical measures of image quality. The effect on image quality of tube voltage in these two examinations was assessed using two methods. The first method relies on radiologists' observations of images of an anthropomorphic phantom, and the second method was based on computer modeling of the imaging system using an anthropomorphic voxel phantom. The tube voltage was varied within a broad range (50-150 kV), including those values typically used with screen-film radiography. The tube charge was altered so that the same effective dose was achieved for each projection. Two x-ray units were employed using a computed radiography (CR) image detector with standard tube filtration and antiscatter device. Clinical image quality was assessed by a group of radiologists using a visual grading analysis (VGA) technique based on the revised CEC image criteria. Physical image quality was derived from a Monte Carlo computer model in terms of the signal-to-noise ratio, SNR, of anatomical structures corresponding to the image criteria. Both the VGAS (visual grading analysis score) and SNR decrease with increasing tube voltage in both chest PA and pelvis AP examinations, indicating superior performance if lower tube voltages are employed. Hence, a positive correlation between clinical and physical measures of image quality was found. The pros and cons of using lower tube voltages with CR digital radiography than typically used in analog screen-film radiography are discussed, as well as the relevance of using VGAS and quantum-noise SNR as measures of image quality in pelvis and chest radiography.     

Demonstration of enhanced K-edge angiography using a cerium target x-ray generator

The cerium target x-ray generator is useful in order to perform enhanced K-edge angiography using a cone beam because K-series characteristic x rays from the cerium target are absorbed effectively by iodine-based contrast mediums. The x-ray generator consists of a main controller, a unit with a Cockcroft-Walton circuit and a fixed anode x-ray tube, and a personal computer. The tube is a glass-enclosed diode with a cerium target and a 0.5-mm-thick beryllium window. The maximum tube voltage and current were 65 kV and 0.4 mA, respectively, and the focal-spot sizes were 1.0 x 1.3 mm. Cerium Kalpha lines were left using a barium sulfate filter, and the x-ray intensity was 0.48 microC/kg at 1.0 m from the source with a tube voltage of 60 kV, a current of 0.40 mA, and an exposure time of 1.0 s. Angiography was performed with a computed radiography system using iodine-based microspheres. In coronary angiography of nonliving animals, we observed fine blood vessels of approximately 100 microm with high contrasts.