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1.
Luwam T. Gebrekristos Allison K. Groves Luz McNaughton Reyes Suzanne Maman Dhayendre Moodley 《AIDS care》2020,32(5):193-197
ABSTRACTWomen, and specifically, adolescents, are at high risk of HIV and STIs during the postpartum period. Biological and behavioral factors contribute to adolescents’ susceptibility. However, the influence of behavioral factors, like intimate partner violence (IPV), on postpartum STI acquisition has been understudied. The study’s purpose is to determine whether IPV victimization during pregnancy predicts incident STIs in the first 6 months postpartum. Adolescent mothers (14–19 years) were recruited at a township hospital’s maternity ward near Durban. Adolescent mothers who were HIV-negative and had no laboratory-diagnosed STIs at baseline (6 weeks postpartum) were included in the analysis (n = 61). We used a modified Poisson regression with robust standard errors to assess differences in postpartum STI risk by IPV victimization during pregnancy controlling for covariates. At baseline, 25 (41%) adolescent mothers reported IPV victimization during pregnancy. Adolescent mothers who reported IPV during pregnancy were at higher risk of receiving an STI diagnoses at 6 months postpartum (aRR: 4.43; 95% CI: 1.31–14.97). Our findings heighten understanding of HIV risk among a vulnerable subset of adolescent girls: adolescent mothers. Non-combined interventions that help young mothers and their partners navigate partnership dynamics to reduce IPV and STIs are needed to reduce HIV risk. 相似文献
2.
Toomey TL Wagenaar AC Erickson DJ Fletcher LA Patrek W Lenk KM 《Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research》2004,28(5):769-774
BACKGROUND: Early studies assessing propensity of alcohol sales to underage youth found that, before intervention, likelihood of licensed alcohol establishments selling alcohol to underage youth was 50% or higher across many communities. Community-wide interventions successfully lowered underage alcohol sales rates in several communities. Across studies assessing propensity for alcohol sales to obviously intoxicated patrons, sales rate estimates ranged from 58% to 85% for on-premise establishments (e.g., bars). No previous studies have assessed likelihood of alcohol sales to obviously intoxicated patrons in off-premise establishments (e.g., liquor stores). One goal of this study was to assess propensity for illegal alcohol sales to obviously intoxicated patrons at on- and off-premise establishments. Another goal was to assess whether server and/or establishment characteristics were related to the likelihood of illegal sales. Results may inform future interventions to reduce illegal alcohol sales at licensed alcohol establishments. METHODS: Trained actors attempted to purchase alcohol while acting out signs of obvious intoxication at a census of on- and off-premise alcohol establishments (n = 372) in 11 communities. The outcome variable was whether an establishment sold alcohol to a buyer. Independent variables included age and gender of server/clerk, type of establishment, area, exterior maintenance, type of license, and time of purchase attempt. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were conducted. RESULTS: Seventy-nine percent of the establishments sold alcohol to a buyer (83% and 76% at off- and on-premise establishments, respectively). Servers/clerks who appeared younger than age 31 and off-premise establishments were significantly more likely than older appearing servers and on-premise establishments to sell alcohol to buyers. CONCLUSIONS: The likelihood of alcohol sales to obviously intoxicated patrons in licensed alcohol establishments is very high. Interventions to reduce illegal alcohol sales to intoxicated patrons are needed. 相似文献
3.
Paul J. Gruenewald Pat Madden Kathy Janes 《Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research》1992,16(3):591-597
The formal powers and resources of state alcohol beverage control agencies place them in a position to regulate access to alcoholic beverages through restrictions on retail distribution and sales. For example, monopoly states restrict access to spirits, and sometimes wine, by allowing retail sales only through state stores. On the other hand, license and monopoly states share in restricting sales through the use of price posting and fixing provisions. The degree to which these powers are realized in restrictions on alcohol outlets (e.g., licenses) and subsequent alcohol consumption (e.g., sales) was investigated in the current study. In a cross-sectional analysis of data available from 44 alcohol beverage control (ABC) jurisdictions in the United States, it was shown that states with greater restrictions on retail sales had greater resources for the conduct of ABC activities and lower densities of spirit outlets. These states, however, had greater densities of wine and beer outlets. States with greater marketplace restrictions had more resources for ABC enforcement activities and lower outlet densities across all beverage types. Further, supporting the suggestion that availability and demand may be simultaneously related, greater outlet densities were related to greater alcohol consumption (for beer) and greater levels of consumption were related to greater outlet densities (for wine). 相似文献
4.
《The American journal of drug and alcohol abuse》2013,39(4):404-411
ABSTRACTBackground: Increasing alcohol taxes has proven effective in reducing alcohol consumption, but the effects of alcohol sales taxes on sales of specific alcoholic beverages have received little research attention. Data on sales are generally less subject to reporting biases than self-reported patterns of alcohol consumption. Objectives: We aimed to assess the effects of Maryland’s July 1, 2011 three percentage point increase in the alcohol sales tax (6–9%) on beverage-specific and total alcohol sales. Methods: Using county-level data on Maryland’s monthly alcohol sales in gallons for 2010–2012, by beverage type, multilevel mixed effects multiple linear regression models estimated the effects of the tax increase on alcohol sales. We controlled for seasonality, county characteristics, and national unemployment rates in the main analyses. Results: In the 18 months after the tax increase, average per capita sales of spirits were 5.1% lower (p < 0.001), beer sales were 3.2% lower (p < 0.001), and wine sales were 2.5% lower (p < 0.01) relative to what would have been expected from sales trends in the 18 months prior to the tax increase. Overall, the alcohol sales tax increase was associated with a 3.8% decline in total alcohol sold relative to what would have been expected based on sales in the prior 18 months (p < 0.001). Conclusion: The findings suggest that increased alcohol sales taxes may be as effective as excise taxes in reducing alcohol consumption and related problems. Sales taxes also have the added advantages of rising with inflation and taxing the highest priced beverages most heavily. 相似文献
5.
Joseph T. Spadafino Omar Martinez Ethan C. Levine Brian Dodge Miguel Muñoz-Laboy M. Isabel Fernandez 《AIDS care》2016,28(6):695-698
We assessed the extent to which sociodemographic, personal, and behavioral factors are associated with human immunode?ciency virus/sexually transmitted infection (HIV/STI) testing among a diverse group of Latino men who have sex with men (MSM) in New York City. The triangulation approach was used to synthesize data from 176 MSM who completed an in-person or phone questionnaire about substance use, alcohol consumption, sexual behaviors, and HIV/STI testing history and 40 participants who participated in focus groups. Correlates of testing significant in univariable analyses (p?.05) were entered into multivariable logistic regression models. Over half (57.9%) of study subjects tested for HIV in the previous 12 months and 60.2% tested for STIs in the previous 12 months. Age and education were positively correlated with HIV testing in multivariable analysis. No significant correlates of STI testing were identified. Spanish-speaking only subjects were less likely to get tested for HIV and STI; however, this association was not significant. Our study demonstrates the need for further study of predictors of STI testing as well as the potential role of language barriers and education in routine testing for HIV. Social and behavioral factors may intensify these obstacles. Future research and interventions should address the role of language barriers and perceived issues of immigration status in the decision to get tested. 相似文献
6.
Aleksandra J. Snowden William Alex Pridemore 《The American journal of drug and alcohol abuse》2014,40(4):327-335
Background: There is considerable evidence of an association between alcohol outlet density and violence. Although prior research reveals the importance of specific characteristics of bars on this association and that the relationship between bar density and violence may be moderated by these characteristics, there are few similar studies of the characteristics of off-premise outlets (e.g. liquor and convenience stores). Objectives: We examined whether immediate environment, business practice, staff, and patron characteristics of off-premise alcohol outlets are associated with simple and aggravated assault density. Methods: Cross-sectional design using aggregate data from 65 census block groups in a non-metropolitan college town, systematic social observation, and spatial modeling techniques. Results: We found limited effects of immediate environment, business practice, staff, and patron characteristics on simple assault density and no effect on aggravated assault density. Only two out of 17 characteristics were associated with simple assault density (i.e. nearby library and male patrons). Conclusion: This is the first study to examine the association between several off-premise alcohol outlet characteristics and assault. Our findings suggest that where the off-premise outlets are located, how well the immediate environment is maintained, what types of beverages the outlets sell, who visits them, and who works there matter little in their association with violence. This suggests the importance of outlet density itself as a primary driver of any association with violence. Public policies aimed at reducing alcohol outlet density or clustering may be useful for reducing violence. 相似文献
7.
Effects of the elimination of a state monopoly on distilled spirits' retail sales: a time-series analysis of Iowa 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Since the end of prohibition in the USA, only one slate, Iowa, has eliminated its state retail monopoly of distilled spirits sales for off-premise consumption. In March 1987 all slate retail stores were closed, and private establishments were licensed to sell distilled spirits. Interrupted time-series analyses of apparent spirits consumption in Iowa, controlling for nationwide sales trends over the past two decades, identified a statistically significant 9.5% increase in spirits sales following the policy change. While there was a corresponding 13.7% decline in wine sales, and no change in beer sales, privatization of spirits retail sales yielded a net increase in total alcohol consumption in Iowa. No changes were found in spirits sales in states bordering Iowa. 相似文献
8.
Gundolf Schuettfort Ana Groh Gerrit Kann Annette Haberl Eva Herrmann Nils Wetzstein Maria Johanna Gobertina Tetuanui Vehreschild Christoph Stephan 《HIV medicine》2023,24(2):163-169
Objectives
After pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) was introduced, rates of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) increased among PrEP users. However, data on STI trends in people living with HIV since then are limited. Since September 2019, PrEP has been covered by statutory German health insurance (SHI) in vulnerable groups. This study aimed to determine whether this coverage of PrEP costs affected STI rates in people living with HIV (specifically, men who have sex with men).Methods
All patients of the HIVCENTER Frankfurt diagnosed with at least one STI within the observation period were retrospectively enrolled in the study. STIs included infection with Treponema pallidum, Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and/or Trichomonas vaginalis. The observation period covered 1 year before and 1 year after the coverage of PrEP costs by German SHI. Data were collected from outpatient clinic records.Results
In total, 143 patients were enrolled in the study. The observation period was September 2018 to August 2019 for group 1 (n = 73) and September 2019 to August 2020 for group 2 (n = 70). The most frequent STIs were syphilis and infections due to chlamydia, gonococci, and trichomonads, in descending order. Infections with T. pallidum occurred more often in group 2 than in group 1 (60.0% vs. 50.7%; p = 0.253) as did chlamydia (37.1% vs. 28.8%; p = 0.286).Conclusions
A tendency for an increased ratio of STIs in people living with HIV was observed after the introduction of PrEP coverage by German SHI. STIs should be discussed intensively with people living with HIV, since the communities of PrEP users and people living with HIV overlap, and changes in risk behaviour might influence both groups. 相似文献9.
AIMS/INTERVENTION: The Complying with the Minimum Drinking Age project (CMDA) is a community trial designed to test effects of two interventions designed to reduce alcohol sales to minors: (1) training for management of retail alcohol establishments and (2) enforcement checks of alcohol establishments. DESIGN: CMDA is a multi-community time-series quasi-experimental trial with a nested cohort design. SETTING/PARTICIPANTS: CMDA was implemented in 20 cities in four geographic areas in the US Midwest. MEASUREMENTS: The core outcome, propensity for alcohol sales to minors, was directly tested with research staff who attempted to purchase alcohol without showing age identification using a standardized protocol in 602 on-premise and 340 off-premise alcohol establishments. Data were collected every other week in all communities over 4 years. Mixed-model regression and Box-Jenkins time-series analyses were used to assess short- and long-term establishment-specific and general community-level effects of the two interventions. FINDINGS: Effects of the training intervention were mixed. Specific deterrent effects were observed for enforcement checks, with an immediate 17% reduction in likelihood of sales to minors. These effects decayed entirely within 3 months in off-premise establishments and to an 8.2% reduction in on-premise establishments. CONCLUSIONS: Enforcement checks prevent alcohol sales to minors. At the intensity levels tested, enforcement primarily affected specific establishments checked, with limited diffusion to the whole community. Finally, most of the enforcement effect decayed within 3 months, suggesting that a regular schedule of enforcement is necessary to maintain deterrence. 相似文献
10.
High Blood Pressure and Related Factors Among Individuals at High Risk for HIV/Sexually Transmitted Infections 下载免费PDF全文
Soohyun Nam PhD Robin Whittemore PhD Sangchoon Jeon PhD Melissa A. Davey‐Rothwell PhD Carl Latkin PhD 《Journal of clinical hypertension (Greenwich, Conn.)》2016,18(6):572-580
Data from a social network–based human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/sexually transmitted infection (STI) prevention study with a total of 330 men and women at high risk for HIV/STIs were used to examine the relationships between substance use, depressive symptoms, general health, cardiovascular disease risk factors, sociodemographic characteristics, and systolic/diastolic blood pressure (SBP/DBP). Approximately 60% of the participants had prehypertension to stage 2 hypertension. In the base model, older patients (P<.0001), men (P=.003), and patients with poorer self‐reported health (P=.029) were significantly associated with high SBP, whereas older age (P<.001) and higher body mass index (P<.001) were significantly associated with higher DBP. After adjusting for the base model, high frequency of alcohol drinking and high frequency of binge drinking remained significant for high SBP and DBP. These data suggest that future cardiovascular disease programs should target moderate alcohol consumption to improve blood pressure among individuals at high risk for HIV/STIs. 相似文献
11.
《The American journal of drug and alcohol abuse》2013,39(5):456-460
Background: Underage drinking is associated with a number of social and public health consequences. Preventing access to alcohol is one approach to reducing underage drinking. Objectives: This study assesses the efficacy of a culturally tailored “reward and reminder” program aimed at reducing convenience store alcohol sales to youth living on or near nine American Indian reservations. Methods: First, tribal council proclamations were sought to support underage drinking prevention, including reward and reminder efforts. Then, decoys (volunteers over 21 years of age but judged to look younger) attempted to purchase alcohol without identification. Clerks who asked for identification were given “rewards” (gift cards and congratulatory letters), whereas clerks who did not were given “reminders” of the law regarding sales to minors. Following an initial baseline of 12 purchase attempts, three repeated reward and reminder visits were made to 13 convenience stores selling alcohol within 10 miles of the reservations (n = 51 total attempts). Results: Five of nine tribal councils passed resolutions in support of the program. The baseline sales rate without requesting ID was 33%. Similarly, 38% of stores in the first reward and reminder visit round failed to request identification. However, in the following two reward and reminder rounds, 0% of the stores failed to request identification. Conclusions: These results indicate that environmental community-level underage drinking prevention strategies to reduce alcohol sales near rural reservations are feasible and can be effective. Scientific Significance: Environmental prevention strategies within reservation communities support integrated supply and demand reduction models for reducing underage drinking. 相似文献
12.
Puja Seth Gina M. Wingood LaShun S. Robinson Ralph J. DiClemente 《AIDS and behavior》2014,18(4):747-751
The impact of alcohol use on the efficacy of an HIV/STI intervention designed for young African-American women in predicting STIs was examined. Eight hundred forty-eight African-American women, 18–29 years, were randomly assigned to either the HIV/STI intervention or a control condition. Participants were assessed on alcohol use and provided two vaginal swab specimens for STI testing. Women in the intervention who consumed alcohol were less likely to test STI-positive than women in the control and abstainers (AOR = 2.47, 95 % CI = 1.01–6.22). STI risk factors may vary across different populations. Further research on heavy drinking and HIV intervention efficacy is needed. 相似文献
13.
Formal laws and regulations governing activities of state alcohol beverage control agencies in the United States were classified into 10 categories of physical availability and four categories of economic availability. These categories were subjected to similarity analysis to determine variation among states. Kruskal's stress-one measure revealed three major dimensions of alcohol control laws: forms of retail sales, administrative penalties for violations of alcohol control laws, and price restrictions. This finding suggests that the license/monopoly distinction frequently used to categorize state alcohol control systems is inadequate to characterize the variations in control systems. 相似文献
14.
Sari L. Reisner Ralph Vetters Jaclyn M. White Elijah L. Cohen M. LeClerc Shayne Zaslow 《AIDS care》2015,27(8):1031-1036
15.
Laura E. P. Huyveneers Mathapelo Maphanga Chijioke N. Umunnakwe Larissa Bosman-de Boer Robert S. Moraba Hugo A. Tempelman Annemarie M. J. Wensing Lucas E. Hermans 《Tropical medicine & international health : TM & IH》2023,28(4):335-342
Objective
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including syphilis, chlamydia, gonorrhoea and trichomoniasis, are of global public health concern. While STI incidence rates in sub-Saharan Africa are high, longitudinal data on incidence and recurrence of STIs are scarce, particularly in rural areas. We determined the incidence rates of curable STIs in HIV-negative women during 96 weeks in a rural South African setting.Methods
We prospectively followed participants enrolled in a randomised controlled trial to evaluate the safety and efficacy of a dapivirine-containing vaginal ring for HIV prevention in Limpopo province, South Africa. Participants were included if they were female, aged 18–45, sexually active, not pregnant and HIV-negative. Twelve-weekly laboratory STI testing was performed during 96 weeks of follow-up. Treatment was provided based on vaginal discharge by physical examination or after a laboratory-confirmed STI.Results
A total of 119 women were included in the study. Prevalence of one or more STIs at baseline was 35.3%. Over 182 person-years at risk (PYAR), a total of 149 incident STIs were diagnosed in 75 (65.2%) women with incidence rates of 45.6 events/PYAR for chlamydia, 27.4 events/100 PYAR for gonorrhoea and 8.2 events/100 PYAR for trichomoniasis. Forty-four women developed ≥2 incident STIs. Risk factors for incident STI were in a relationship ≤3 years (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR]: 1.86; 95% confidece interval [CI]: 1.04–2.65) and having an STI at baseline (aHR: 1.66; 95% CI: 1.17–2.96). Sensitivity and specificity of vaginal discharge for laboratory-confirmed STI were 23.6% and 87.7%, respectively.Conclusion
This study demonstrates high STI incidence in HIV-negative women in rural South Africa. Sensitivity of vaginal discharge was poor and STI recurrence rates were high, highlighting the shortcomings of syndromic management in the face of asymptomatic STIs in this setting. 相似文献16.
Objectives
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) significantly impact the health of people living with HIV/AIDS, increasing HIV infectiousness and therefore transmissibility. The current study examined STIs in a community sample of 490 HIV‐positive men and women.Methods
Assessments were performed using confidential computerized interviews in a community research setting.Results
Fourteen per cent of the people living with HIV/AIDS in this study had been diagnosed with a new STI in a 6‐month period. Individuals with a new STI had significantly more sexual partners in that time period, including non‐HIV‐positive partners. Participants who had contracted an STI were significantly more likely to have detectable viral loads and were less likely to know their viral load than participants who did not contract an STI. Multivariate analysis showed that believing an undetectable viral load leads to lower infectiousness was associated with contracting a new STI.Conclusions
Individuals who believed that having an undetectable viral load reduces HIV transmission risks were more likely to be infectious because of STI coinfection. Programmes that aim to use HIV treatment for HIV prevention must address infectiousness beliefs and aggressively control STIs among people living with HIV/AIDS. 相似文献17.
Eric Merrell 《The American journal of drug and alcohol abuse》2020,46(2):143-148
ABSTRACTBackground: Recent advances in technology have allowed for innovative targeting of high-risk alcohol users.Objectives: We propose the implementation of an alcohol purchase license linked to a state agency managed database, or so-called Banned Drinker Register (BDR).Methods: Individuals who are unable to drink safely will be identified by a well-founded criterion and their ability to purchase alcohol proscribed. A state agency will be responsible for maintaining the BDR and compiling mandated reports from hospitals, courts, police and child protective agencies of alcohol-related dangerous behavior, adjudicating reports with the input of those involved in these events, and determining which individuals will not be allowed to purchase alcohol. Outlets of alcohol sales will then be required to assess customers for eligibility of alcohol purchase using an electronic card reader (as used for age verification). Individuals wanting to protect themselves from drinking may also self-request to be placed on the BDR.Results: Overall, the convenience/access for persons who injure themselves with alcohol and others with intoxicated behavior would be reduced. Opportunities for cost savings would come from a decrease in yearly incarcerations, a reduction in preventable traffic accidents and property damage requiring state municipal intervention, a decreased cost to offending individuals by preventing increased insurance rates, loss of jobs to incarceration and loss of potential future wages, and the possibility of preventing long term medical complications of chronic alcohol use and its toll on the health care system.Conclusions: Health benefits will include increased public safety and awareness about drinking consequences and reduced alcohol-related morbidity and mortality. 相似文献
18.
Sexualized drug use (‘chemsex’) and high‐risk sexual behaviours in HIV‐positive men who have sex with men 下载免费PDF全文
EL Pufall M Kall M Shahmanesh A Nardone R Gilson V Delpech H Ward The Positive Voices study group 《HIV medicine》2018,19(4):261-270
Objectives
The incidence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and HIV infection remains high in gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM) in the UK, and sexualized drug use (“chemsex”) and injecting drug use (“slamsex”) may play a part in this. We aimed to characterize HIV‐positive MSM engaging in chemsex/slamsex and to assess the associations with self‐reported STI diagnoses and sexual behaviours.Methods
Data from a 2014 survey of people attending HIV clinics in England and Wales were linked to clinical data from national HIV surveillance records and weighted to be nationally representative. Multivariable logistic regression assessed the associations of chemsex and slamsex with self‐reported unprotected anal intercourse (UAI), serodiscordant UAI (sdUAI) (i.e. UAI with an HIV‐negative or unknown HIV status partner), sdUAI with a detectable viral load (>50 HIV‐1 RNA copies/mL), hepatitis C, and bacterial STIs.Results
In the previous year, 29.5% of 392 sexually active participants engaged in chemsex, and 10.1% in slamsex. Chemsex was significantly associated with increased odds of UAI [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 5.73; P < 0.001], sdUAI (AOR 2.34; P < 0.05), sdUAI with a detectable viral load (AOR 3.86; P < 0.01), hepatitis C (AOR 6.58; P < 0.01), and bacterial STI diagnosis (AOR 2.65; P < 0.01). Slamsex was associated with increased odds of UAI (AOR 6.11; P < 0.05), hepatitis C (AOR 9.39; P < 0.001), and bacterial STI diagnosis (AOR 6.11; P < 0.001).Conclusions
Three in ten sexually active HIV‐positive MSM engaged in chemsex in the past year, which was positively associated with self‐reported depression/anxiety, smoking, nonsexual drug use, risky sexual behaviours, STIs, and hepatitis C. Chemsex may therefore play a role in the ongoing HIV and STI epidemics in the UK. 相似文献19.
Charania MR Crepaz N Guenther-Gray C Henny K Liau A Willis LA Lyles CM 《AIDS and behavior》2011,15(7):1283-1297
This systematic review examines the overall efficacy of U.S. and international-based structural-level condom distribution
interventions (SLCDIs) on HIV risk behaviors and STIs and identifies factors associated with intervention efficacy. A comprehensive
literature search of studies published from January 1988 through September 2007 yielded 21 relevant studies. Significant intervention
effects were found for the following outcomes: condom use, condom acquisition/condom carrying, delayed sexual initiation among
youth, and reduced incident STIs. The stratified analyses for condom use indicated that interventions were efficacious for
various groups (e.g., youth, adults, males, commercial sex workers, clinic populations, and populations in areas with high
STI incidence). Interventions increasing the availability of or accessibility to condoms or including additional individual, small-group or community-level components along with condom distribution were
shown to be efficacious in increasing condom use behaviors. This review suggests that SLCDIs provide an efficacious means
of HIV/STI prevention. 相似文献
20.
Teague R Mijch A Fairley CK Sidat M Watson K Boyd K Chen MY 《International journal of STD & AIDS》2008,19(3):200-202
This study compares the testing rates of bacterial sexually transmitted infections (STIs) among HIV-positive men who have sex with men (MSM) attending two HIV clinics in Melbourne. Data on STI testing over a 12-month period were obtained for all HIV-positive MSM who attended the clinics between January and March 2006. Screening rates for bacterial STIs were significantly higher at a sexual health clinic (n = 254) compared with an infectious diseases clinic (n = 351), whether this was measured according to: at least one STI test being performed for chlamydia, gonorrhoea or syphilis (69% vs. 38%, P < 0.01); serological testing for syphilis alone (67% vs. 34%, P < 0.01); or 'complete' STI screening for pharyngeal gonorrhoea, urethral chlamydia, anal gonorrhoea, anal chlamydia and syphilis (41% vs. 6%, P < 0.01). Substantial differences in STI testing rates among HIV-positive MSM may exist between HIV clinical services depending on the measures in place that promote STI screening. 相似文献