Social Welfare Spending on Family Benefits in the United States and Sweden: A Comparative Study*

Although the economic and social conditions of families have changed considerably, the framework of U.S. social policy with regard to families has not changed. Under the framework, policymakers assume that the poverty of families or individuals is largely their own fault. This long‐standing belief has impeded the expansion of public spending on behalf of families. I compare public policy on family benefits in the United States and Sweden. The analysis indicates that the United States spends only a fraction of what Sweden spends on family benefits. I also describe the allocation of funds to specific family benefits programs in the two countries and discuss the policy directions that the United States may take in the future.     

Alleviating the force of poverty on urban poor children

This pluralistic, highly advantaged society, with an ethnically diverse and class-divided population, has both moral and economic obligations to assist urban poor children to overcome the adverse conditions of their life circumstances. A network of socially-conscious child advocates is needed to help poor children, particularly those of color, to overcome the statistical odds against them. At bottom these advocates must be humanists who subscribe to the human capital concept and who apply it to our children. A national Urban Marshall Plan is needed, social policy designed to ameliorate the substandard condition of the poor. It must include the institution and maintenance of realistic policies and programs of effective schooling for poor children and their families. Schooling is their lifeline to the 21st century. The urban poor, in turn, have a responsibility to accept and use wisely the assistance offered them. Thus obligation is mutual and reciprocal between society and its urban poor, though the greater burden is on the society to make it possible for urban poor children to surmount adverse conditions under which they find themselves due to “accidents of birth” and the transformation of our economy.     

Swedish programs for children: A comprehensive approach to family needs

In Sweden, as in the United States, the family bears the primary responsibility for child rearing. The article reviews Sweden's social policy of services to individuals and groups and discusses the application of this policy in supportive programs which aid families with young children. The different kinds of child care options currently available in Sweden are described, as well as the supplementary benefits which families receive. Then the article considers program funding and the procedures used to develop services at the community level. A comparison is drawn between the Swedish model and child care and family services in the United States. It is concluded that the viability of American families would be strengthened by additional services to support them in their child rearing roles.     

Child poverty as public policy: direct provision and asylum seeker children in the Republic of Ireland

This paper evaluates responses to asylum seeker children in Ireland from a child poverty perspective and from that of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. It draws upon research undertaken in early 2001 on behalf of the Irish Refugee Council among asylum seeker families with children in Cork, Limerick and Ennis on their experiences of poverty and social exclusion. The research was primarily qualitative. Interviews with adult members of households and some children were triangulated with data on benefit entitlements and take-up, household consumption, accommodation and amenities. The research sought to ascertain levels of income poverty and material deprivation. A range of indictors of child poverty and social exclusion were also employed. The research found that asylum seeker children experienced extreme income poverty, material deprivation, housing deprivation and social exclusion in considerable part due to the imposition of a system of lesser welfare entitlements, known as “direct provision”, introduced in April 2000. The paper argues that state-fostered social exclusion of asylum seeker children resulting from “direct provision” is contrary to Ireland's obligations under the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, the goals of the National Children's Strategy and the goals of the National Anti-Poverty Strategy.     

Characteristics of successful directors of for-profit child care centers

The need for quality child care is a national concern of increasing interest to parents, child care providers, employers, and policy-makers in the United States. One of the newest entries in child care options available for consumers is for-profit daycare chains. As for-profit chains increase in both number and size, they will receive increased research attention. Few studies have examined for-profit centers in general or the background characteristics of their directors specifically.

The purpose of this research was to develop a profile of directors of for-profit child care centers and to investigate whether certain background variables, such as level of education, differentiated “successful” from “unsuccessful” directors. Data were collected on 362 child care directors employed during a three-year period with a nation-wide daycare chain in the United States.     

The Future of Pre-Five Services in the UK

In the UK, as in the USA, early years services are characterized by the absence of any coherent national policy, low levels of provision, inegality of access, and fragmentation of services. Whereas there is a consensus that the State should provide for children deemed to be “in need”,there is less consensus over the provision of nursery education, and no perceived State obligation to provide daycare for children of working parents.

The influence of the European Union and the work of the European Childcare Network in setting European targets for coherent development of services offers some possibility of change both in types and levels of provision. However, the example of Strathclyde illustrates that making changes at a local level without a national framework which addresses training and without a fiscal policy, is problematic; it further implies that at both a local and at a national level, process is as important as policy. The paper concludes by highlighting the areas for radical reform.     

Influence of a Family Program on Adolescent Smoking and Drinking Prevalence

Reducing the prevalence of adolescent cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking are public health goals of the United States. Although families have strong influence on their children, few randomized studies have examined whether family-directed programs influence those behaviors in general universal populations. This paper reports findings from an evaluation of a family program that features the mailing of four booklets to adult family members with follow-up telephone calls by health educators. A national sample of adolescent–parent pairs and a randomized experimental design were used to evaluate the program. Baseline users and nonusers of those substances were considered simultaneously in analyses so that program influences on smoking and drinking prevalence could be examined. The findings suggest that the program significantly reduced the prevalence of smoking cigarettes and drinking alcohol among adolescents. These findings are discussed in the context of earlier reports of research on the family program and implications for public health.     

Influence of a Family-Directed Program on Adolescent Cigarette and Alcohol Cessation

Programs to reduce adolescent cigarette or alcohol use by users in general populations have only recently been evaluated. Moreover, in spite of the substantial influence families have on their children, few family-directed programs designed to reduce the prevalence of adolescent smoking and drinking have been rigorously evaluated. This paper reports the findings of research designed to determine whether a family program reduced use of cigarettes or alcohol by users. The program consisted of a series of booklets mailed to families and follow-up telephone calls by health educators. A randomized experimental design involved families with children ages 12–14 throughout the United States. Data were collected by telephone at baseline and 3 and 12 months after the program was completed. No statistically significant program effects were observed for cessation or decrease in smoking and drinking by users.     

The efficacy of the parent-teacher “partnership” of the 1990s

The 1990s are times of rapid social and technological change. There are many unknowns that face both adults and children. We all have problems that need resolution. The time when adults “knew” the answers and children learned by “watching” echo faintly in the whirl of scientific change which is impacting on most aspects of our daily life. As early childhood teachers we have to learn to enquire, to listen, to think together with children, their families and society. The concept of negotiation is central to communication while the basic tenet of the process focusses not on the person but the issue. It is in these times of rapid change that we need to deepen our understanding of the family and further our professional insights by “tapping” the wealth of crucial kndowledge that parents have about their children. Hurst asserts that the partnership of parents in issues of their children's education:

“is probably the greatest single opportunity for educational advance open to teachers today”.

Hurst: 1987; 109     

Providing health and social services to illegal alien families: a dilemma for community agencies.

Proposals for dealing with illegeal migration from Mexico to the United States generally do not recognize it as an international social problem. The proposals also present contradictory solutions. Amnesty, a humanitarian policy, is being suggested as well as increased restrictions and punishments, a policing policy. However, in the absence of a comprehensive national policy, community social and health care programs must provide services to illegal aliens. This article attempts to document some of the issues that illegal immigration presents for community agencies.     

A Shoestring Operation for Sexually Abused Children

The title of this paper refers to how resources were gathered to provide a therapy group for latency aged children who had been sexually abused. In one way it is a sad commentary on how society treats children who have been victimized; on the other hand, this account shows how volunteers with a will can harness the energies of social agencies to help provide a needed service that was not yet established. The history of social work is replete with accounts of generous individuals who stepped forward to do the necessary. Social work, like nursing, had its origins in volunteerism.¹ Even today lacunae in public welfare are filled by volunteers, and while not all efforts become institutionalized the trend toward innovation and compassion is still strong in contemporary society (Newsweek, “A 51 Gun Salute to Everyday heroes” pp 62-79 July 6 1987).

Within the profession, there are always fields of service that are on the cutting edge of human needs—witness industrial social work, divorce mediation, services to lesbian/gay clients, AlDs victims, etc. Often these special programs, or the recognition of special populations within an agency's service area are first made by employed professionals within the agency. If the innovative professional has success, the program or method is gradually extended to other agencies and finally adopted by the government. While the connection between individual innovation and public policy is too complex to be described here, it is sufficient to say that the current American program of AFDC had its origins from the experience of juvenile court judges who were faced with the prospect of removing dependent children from their widowed mother. The common sense of these officials and other child advocates saw the wisdom of preserving the family at state expense (Trattner, 1974, pp 185-186).

Whether the situation is that of orphaned or abused children, the process is slow that defines the fact into a social problem. Sometimes, without much fanfare or rhetoric, an individual professional or a volunteer will attempt a remedy either with spontaneous effort or a small scale program. These small efforts can emerge despite the bureauracy that controls the bulk of public welfare; sometimes the new remedy becomes part of received wisdom and public policy. Whether it is continued or not the program has responded to human need in a changing world. Social work in industry, among refugees, displaced homemakers, gay people are some of the instances in which small scale operations came before “public” help.

The problem of sexually abused children has been around a long time; any kind of sexual activity with a child is harmful (Conte 1981, pp 601-602.). An unknown number of child victims grow up without psychological help that could prevent painful memories as an adult. It was to prevent this emotional scaring that the “shoestring operation” was launched.     

Diversity Within the Deaf or Hard of Hearing Population: Wisdom from Seeing the Whole

Issues of diversity and multiculturalism within the US population typically address concerns regarding between-group differences. That is, members of groups distinguished by race, ethnicity, alternative lifestyle, or educational exceptionality become typified by their common characteristic. For example, it is common to refer to children identified as having hearing loss as "the hearing impaired” or "the Deaf.” This terminology may lead service providers to make assumptions about standard practice as to how to assist these children and their families. However, to deliver appropriate services to qualifying children and their families, service providers must be sophisticated at distinguishing within-group differences, and view each individual case's needs relative to a picture of “the whole.”

This article examines the within-group differences that exist in children who belong to a group whose common characteristic is some degree of hearing loss. A rationale is provided for viewing service options for these children and their families as parts of a whole. A discussion of the implications of this perspective on service delivery is provided.     

Pediatric mental health problems and associated burden on families

Approximately 20% of children in the United States have mental health problems. The factors associated with childhood mental health problems and the associated burdens on families are not well understood. Therefore, our goals were to profile mental health problems in children to identify disparities, and to quantify and identify correlates of family burden. We used the National Survey of Children's Health, 2003 (n?=?85,116 children aged 3–17 years) for this analysis. The prevalence, unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios (AOR) of mental health problems and family burden were calculated for children by child-, family- and health systems-level characteristics. The prevalence of mental health problems among children aged 3–17 years was 18%. The odds of mental health problems were higher for boys, older children, children living in or near relative poverty, those covered by public insurance, children of mothers with fair or poor mental health, children living in homes without two parents, children without a personal doctor or nurse and children with unmet health care needs. Among families with children with mental health problems, 28% reported family burden. Correlates of family burden included white race, severity, older age, higher income, non-two-parent family structure and having a mother with mental health problems. In conclusion, childhood mental health problems are common, and disproportionally affect children with fewer family and health care resources. Families frequently report burden, especially if the mental health problem is moderate to severe, but the correlates of family burden are not the same correlates associated with mental health problems. Understanding those highest at risk for mental health problems and family burden will help assist clinicians and policy makers to ensure appropriate support systems for children and families.     

Insights in Public Health: The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women,Infants and Children: Strengthening Families for 40 Years

The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) is a proven, cost-effective investment in strengthening families. As part of the United States Department of Agriculture''s (USDA) 15 federal nutrition assistance programs for the past 40 years, WIC has grown to be the nation''s leading public health nutrition program. WIC serves as an important first access point to health care and social service systems for many limited resource families, serving approximately half the births in the nation as well as locally. By providing nutrition education, breastfeeding promotion and foods in addition to referrals, WIC plays a crucial role in promoting lifetime health for women, infants and children. WIC helps achieve national public health goals such as reducing premature births and infant mortality, increasing breastfeeding, and reducing maternal and childhood overweight. Though individuals and families can self-refer into WIC, physicians and allied health professionals have the opportunity and are encouraged to promote awareness of WIC and refer families in their care.     

Bullying: A preliminary investigation of its nature and the effects of social cognition

The nature of peer group bullying among 631 Australian primary school children in years 5, 6 and 7 was surveyed in STUDY ONE to further understand the nature and effects of bullying. Over 6% of the sample reported being bullied 1-2 days/ week and nearly 1/3 of the sample felt unsafe from bullying. For 16% of the children who are bullied the experience lasts six months or more. Approximately one quarter of the students felt that teachers did little to stop bullying while children gave as their reason for not helping a victim “it is none of my business” and “fear”. Bullying affected self perception with 65% feeling worse about themselves after the incident. In STUDY TWO 76 children were individually interviewed regarding their social problem solving capacities. Bullies, victims and “normals” differed in relation to their attribution for control for explanations of aggressive behaviour. Bullies were more “external” than victims or other children. Bullies chose more aggressive second best solutions to aggressive behaviour by other children than victims while victims feared retaliation for aggressive behaviour on their part. The findings were discussed in terms of social cognition.     

The school of the 21st century: Creating opportunities for school-based child care

Shifts in the structure and needs of families in the United States are prompting public schools to expand their role by offering school-based child care and family support services. This article describes a national initiative—the School of the 21st Century—in which the public school serves as a hub for the delivery and coordination of services for families and children. Factors related to providing comprehensive, quality child care and family support and concerns regarding school-based child care are discussed. Included are preliminary evaluation results of 21st Century School programs. Findings indicate that schools can play a role in the delivery of a comprehensive system of child care and parents favor the use of schools for this purpose.     

The association between oral manifestations and the socioeconomic and cultural characteristics of HIV-infected children in Brazil and in the United States of America]

OBJECTIVES: This study had two objectives: (1) to investigate the socioeconomic and cultural characteristics of HIV-infected children and their families in relation to the presence of oral manifestations of AIDS and (2) to identify the most frequent oral manifestations of AIDS in the sample of children studied. METHODS: The sample consisted of a total of 184 children - both boys and girls - from 0 to 13 years old. The children were receiving care at two hospitals in the city of Porto Alegre, Brazil (the Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre and the Hospital S?o Lucas da Pontifícia Universidade Católica), and at Stony Brook University Hospital, which is in the state of New York, United States. Data were analyzed using the chisquare test, Student's t test, and analysis of variance. RESULTS: Of the 184 patients, 117 of them (63.59%) were receiving care at the Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, 26 (14.13%) at the Hospital S?o Lucas, and 41 (22.28%) at Stony Brook University Hospital. In the Brazilian sample (the two hospitals in Porto Alegre) 42.66% of the children were living with their natural parents (mostly with the mother), while in the United States 56.10% of the children were living with foster families. Concerning income, 39.86% of the Brazilian families had a monthly income ranging from US$ 180 to US$ 450, and 33.57% had no income or did not provide information. With the United States sample, we were not allowed to ask about income, but all the families were classified by the social workers as having a monthly income below US$ 1 000. HIV was acquired through vertical transmission by 97.20% of the Brazilian children and by 97.56% of the children in the United States sample. Oral manifestations were more frequent in the Brazilian children (72.73%) than in the children in the United States sample (53.66%) (P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The frequency of oral manifestations in the samples in both Brazil and the United States was influenced by socioeconomic and cultural conditions, family structure and income, access to information concerning AIDS, and adherence to treatment.     

Developing a policy for early childhood education: Challenges and constraints

Against a backcloth of patchy and uncoordinated provision for young children, this paper argues for the development of a national policy framework, within which services can be developed at a local level. Using examples from recent legislation and current initiatives in Britain, the paper puts forward a number of specific policy proposals around five main themes: a national policy that integrates or coordinates “care” and “education” at a structural level and within practice; responsibility for the provision of services as being shared by central and local government as well as the private sector and parents; how to ensure quality and equality of opportunity in meeting the needs of young children; how to make services responsive and accessible to parents; and the importance of ongoing training and support for staff.     

Evaluating the social competence of young children: A review of the literature

Recent longitudinal studies of established federally funded educational programs designed for young children lacking educational experiences suggest that positive long-term effects were acquired through programs that focused on the development of the social competencies of the children. Although researchers differ on a specific definition and method of evaluation of social competence, the competencies generally accepted as social competence appear to be necessary for success in school and are advantageous to the child as he recognizes and becomes a part of the “culture of literacy”. Researchers agree on the complexity of the social competence construct. Research confirms cognition influences from family, community, and biological factors. Despite the widely accepted importance of social competence in programs for young children, measurement instruments vary. More research is being conducted in federal, state, and private programs on the effects of social competence on success in school. Organizations associated with early childhood programs as well as educational institutions are bringing into focus the need to establish present and future guidelines for developing curricula that enhance the development of social competence and appropriate assessment of social competence of young children.     

International year of the family 1994: Family and gender equity in education

“Building the smallest democracy at the heart of society,” is the motto of the International Year of the Family being celebrated during 1994. The year 1994 has been designated by the United Nations to highlight issues concerning families locally, nationally, and globally during the year and to suggest recommendations for changes in policies and programs.

Since 1975, when the world celebrated International Women's Year, and again, in 1979 during International Year of the Child, evidence has been accruing regarding gender disparities in all countries. It is discouraging, yet perhaps not surprising, that in 1994 the world still awaits gender equity, even though a considerable amount of progress has been made since 1975.