下腰椎爆裂性骨折的损伤特点和手术治疗选择

目的：探讨自行设计的下腰椎爆裂性骨折的评分系统用于指导手术方式选择的可行性。方法：回顾性分析2006年1月至2011年12月采用手术治疗,且资料完整的56例下腰椎单椎体爆裂性骨折病例,男42例,女14例;年龄19～65岁,平均43．1岁。高处坠落伤40例,交通伤12例,重物砸伤4例。损伤部位：L337例,L4 16例,L53例。按AO分型：A3．1型17例,A3．2型14例,A3.3型25例。脊髓神经功能按Frankel分级：B级2例,C级5例,D级9例,E级40例。按A0分型、后柱是否损伤及椎管占位程度进行综合评分,根据评分,分别选择跨伤椎固定、经伤椎置钉固定、联合后前入路和Ⅰ期后入路手术方式。对比术前、术后即刻和末次随访时Cobb角、伤椎前缘高度恢复及椎管占位情况的变化,观察植骨融合情况以及内固定是否存在弯曲、松动或断裂现象。采用Frankel分级标准评定脊髓神经恢复情况,末次随访时对患者的局部疼痛和工作状态进行评定。结果：56例切口无感染,未出现脊髓神经症状加重现象。均获得随访,随访时间12-60个月,平均28．5个月,随访期间未出现内固定松动或断裂现象。在Cobb角、椎体前缘高度及椎管占位恢复方面,术后即刻与术前相比,差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）,术后即刻与末次随访时相比,差异无统计学意义（P〉0．05）。植骨融合情况：跨伤椎固定方式融合13例,经伤椎固定方式融合20例,联合后前入路和Ⅰ期后入路方式20例均获得植骨融合。脊髓神经功能有1-2级的恢复,C级1例,D级3例,E级52例。患者局部疼痛评定：Pl52例,P23例,P31例。工作状态分级：W112例,W239例,W35例。结论：由于下腰椎与胸腰段在解剖、生物力学方面的差异,其具有完全不同的损伤特点。而根据AO分型、后柱是否损伤及椎管占位程度进行的综合评分,是指导下腰椎爆裂性骨折手术治疗选择的较好方法,下腰椎爆裂性骨折应根据损伤程度而采用不同的手术方法。     

改良270°椎管减压椎体前中柱重建治疗严重胸腰椎骨折

目的 :探讨经后路一期椎弓根螺钉固定、改良270°椎管减压、椎体前中柱重建治疗严重胸腰椎骨折的可行性与临床疗效。方法:2011年1月~2013年12月共治疗严重胸腰椎骨折21例,其中男15例,女6例;年龄20~64岁(36.1±14.8岁)。致伤原因:高处坠落伤13例,车祸伤6例,重物砸伤2例;致伤部位:T11/12 2例,T12/L1 6例,L1/2 7例,L2/3 4例,L2~L4 1例,L3/4 1例。AO分型:B2型13例,C型8例。均采用一期椎弓根螺钉固定、改良270°椎管减压、钛网植骨重建椎体前中柱治疗。比较术前、术后伤椎前缘高度、损伤部位Cobb角和椎管骨块占位率,观察植骨融合、椎管重建和内固定情况。采用ASIA 2000分级标准评定脊髓神经功能恢复情况。结果:手术时间120~180min(145±19.2min);术中出血800~2200ml(1320±476.5ml);术后切口引流液250~580ml(398±127.5ml)。术后切口无感染,无脑脊液漏、脊髓神经损伤或脊髓神经功能恶化病例。20例患者获得随访,随访时间12~36个月(21.5±9.7个月)。术后椎体前缘高度、脊柱Cobb角和椎管占位与术前比较差异均有统计学意义(P0.05),末次随访时与术后比较差异均无统计学意义(P0.05)。植骨均获得融合,椎管减压彻底,未出现椎弓根螺钉系统松动、断裂或钛网移位等现象。末次随访时脊髓神经功能除1例A级无变化外,其余均有1~2级的恢复。结论:经后路一期椎弓根螺钉固定、改良270椎管减压并椎体前中柱重建治疗严重胸腰椎骨折安全、可行,并且椎管减压彻底,可以维持脊柱良好的稳定性,获得满意的短期临床疗效。     

胸腰椎前路K形钛钢板在爆裂性骨折中的应用

目的：评价胸腰椎前路K形钛钢板内固定系统在治疗胸腰段爆裂性骨折中的作用和价值。方法：16例胸腰椎爆裂性骨折伴脊髓损伤患者行前路减压、复位、髂骨块植骨、胸腰椎前路K形钛钢板内固定系统固定。结果：16例患者均获术后2－12月随访，无术中、要后并发症发生，无钢板断裂和松动现象，伤椎高度恢复80％－90％。术后3月植骨界面获骨性融合，脊髓神经功能恢复1－3级（除A级3例末恢复外）。结论：胸腰椎前路K形钢板内固定系统系统应用于胸腰椎爆裂性骨折前路减压，植骨后的固定具有恢复伤椎高度，增加节段固定及脊柱稳定性的作用，有利于脊髓神经功能的恢复和防止并发症的发生，并具有操作简单、安全、无磁性、生物相容性好等优点。     

强直性脊柱炎胸腰椎骨折的损伤特点和治疗

目的分析强直性脊柱炎胸腰椎骨折的损伤特点,探讨治疗方法。方法强直性脊柱炎胸腰椎骨折11例,保守治疗1例(L1压缩性骨折者);手术治疗10例,其中前路手术减压内固定3例,后路椎弓根螺钉系统复位内固定、植骨7例。结果切口无感染,无脑脊液漏。1例T12L1骨折行后路椎弓根螺钉系统复位内固定并植骨术(未行椎管探查或减压),麻醉苏醒后发现脊髓神经症状由术前的C级加重为B级;1例L3～5骨折伴马尾神经损伤行前路手术后第2天出现内固定松动、骨折椎再次移位,脊髓神经症状加重,再次行前路内固定取出和后路长节段椎弓根螺钉系统固定植骨术。患者均获得随访,时间10个月～5年,平均(32±4.8)个月,手术患者中8例植骨于6个月获得融合,2例不能明确是否融合。后期未出现内固定松动或断裂现象。脊髓神经损伤者除1例A级无改变、1例C级加重为B级(末次随访时为C级)、1例D级加重为A级外,其余3例有Ⅰ～Ⅱ级的恢复。9例无腰背痛,2例遗留轻度腰背部酸痛。结论强直性脊柱炎胸腰椎骨折患者宜行后路椎弓根螺钉固定、植骨治疗。     

外伤性颈椎间盘突出型脊髓损伤的手术治疗

目的评价外伤性颈椎间盘突出型脊髓损伤手术治疗的效果.方法回顾分析48例外伤性颈椎间盘突出型脊髓损伤患者的临床资料,术前Frankel分级A级2例,B级16例,C级20例,D级10例;JOA评分平均5.5±3.5分.均采用颈椎前路椎间盘切除、椎体间植骨、钛板内固定术,依据术前、术后Frailkel分级情况及JOA评分改善率评价治疗效果.结果术后除1例Frankel分级B级患者无恢复外,其余患者恢复l一4个等级.随访4～36个月.平均18个月.术后2个月时JOA评分为12.2±3.2分,改善率为59.9%±17.8%;末次随访时JOA评分为14.4±3.6分.改善率为68.0%±17.0%.随访中未见内置物松动、脱落或断裂等并发症发生,固定节段均获得骨性融合.结论应用颈椎前路椎间盘切除、椎体间植骨、钛板内固定术治疗外伤性颈椎间盘突出型脊髓损伤可获得较理想的脊髓功能恢复效果.     

棘突椎板复合体回植联合伤椎植骨治疗胸腰椎骨折

目的探讨棘突椎板复合体回植联合伤椎植骨治疗胸腰椎骨折的临床疗效。方法 2012年1月至2016年1月,采用棘突椎板复合体回植联合伤椎植骨钉棒系统内固定治疗31例胸腰椎骨折患者。其中男19例,女12例;年龄19~60岁,平均41.2岁。致伤原因:交通事故伤11例,高处坠落伤13例,重物砸伤7例。按AO分型,A2型3例,A3型17例,B2型3例,C1型3例,C2型5例。随访时行X线和CT检查,比较术前、术后和末次随访时伤椎高度、Cobb角、美国脊髓损伤协会(American spinal injury association,ASIA)分级、日本骨科协会(Japanese orthopaedic association,JOA)评分以及回植后的融合情况。结果 31均例获得随访,随访时间18~48个月,平均28个月。手术后胸腰椎生理曲度恢复满意,Cobb角及伤椎高度与术前相比得到明显改善。神经功能明显恢复。术后ASIA分级,A级1例,B级2例,C级6例,D级10例,E级12例。末次随访时JOA评分与术前相比,差异具有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论棘突椎板复合体回植联合伤椎植骨治疗胸腰椎骨折能较好的恢复椎体高度和矫正后凸并维持椎体稳定,重建脊柱后柱结构,降低了术后椎管内瘢痕黏连和脊柱失稳等并发症发生风险。     

胸腰椎爆裂骨折前路减压手术疗效分析

目的评价脊柱前路减压、植骨内固定手术治疗胸、腰椎爆裂骨折伴脊髓损伤的疗效。方法23例胸腰椎爆裂骨折伴脊髓损伤病例采用前路脊髓减压、植骨、前路钢板内同定术，通过术前、术后影像学对比，了解椎间隙高度、植骨融合等情况，以Frankel评定法来评价病人神经功能恢复情况。结果23例患者术后随访4～16个月，平均9．5个月，全部病例椎间植骨均牢固融合，椎间高度和生理曲度保持满意．钢板螺钉未松动．神经功能恢复良好．有效恢复率为94％。结论胸腰椎爆裂骨折伴脊髓损伤采用脊髓前路减压、植骨固定方法可使骨折减压彻底．植骨融合率高，能有效维持椎间高度和生理曲度，有利于神经功能恢复．是治疗严重胸腰椎爆裂骨折的理想方法之一。     

椎弓根内固定治疗合并脊髓损伤的胸腰椎骨折

[目的]探讨经后路短节段椎弓根内固定治疗合并脊髓损伤的胸腰椎骨折的临床疗效.[方法]分析本科自1999～2004年应用椎弓根内固定治疗合并脊髓损伤胸腰椎骨折并获完整随访的47例病例资料.通过影像学、神经功能及社会功能来综合评估疗效.[结果]47例患者平均随访51.9月(18～86个月),伤椎前、后缘高度压缩率术前平均43.6%、71.4%,术后平均恢复至92.2%、96.4%,至末次随访时为88.3%、93.1%;Cobb′s角术前平均23.5°,术后矫正至4.3°,末次随访时为8.8°.椎管占位率术前、术后、随访时分别为:62.8%、11.4%、6.2%.脊髓不完全损伤的患者神经功能均有FrankeⅡ级以上的改善,61.7%的患者可继续从事伤前的社会工作.[结论]椎弓根内固定治疗合并脊髓损伤的胸腰椎骨折可重建脊柱稳定性,恢复脊柱正常序列,有利于神经功能恢复和植骨融合.     

颈前路单cage植骨融合联合钢板内固定治疗无骨折脱位颈脊髓损伤

目的探讨颈前路单cage植骨融合联合钢板内固定治疗无骨折脱位颈脊髓损伤的临床疗效。方法采用颈前路单cage植骨融合联合钢板内固定治疗63例无骨折脱位颈脊髓损伤患者。比较术前、术后3周和末次随访的ASIA评分。结果患者均获得随访,时间4~60个月。ASIA评分:术前为(48.15±17.23)分,术后3周为(61.42±17.34)分,末次随访为(64.11±16.93)分;术后3周、末次随访与术前比较差异均有统计学意义(P0.05),末次随访与术后3周比较差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。患者融合节段3~12个月均获得良好骨性融合,影像学复查显示减压充分、内固定位置良好。患者均无神经、血管损伤,均无cage移位、沉陷及钢板松动、移位、断裂等并发症。结论颈前路单cage植骨融合联合钢板内固定是治疗无骨折脱位颈脊髓损伤较为理想的方法。     

一期侧前方入路病灶清除植骨双钉棒系统内固定治疗胸腰椎脊柱结核

目的探讨前路一期侧前方入路病灶清除、自体髂骨植骨融合、双钉棒系统内固定治疗胸腰椎脊柱结核的临床疗效。方法对35例胸腰椎脊柱结核患者术前常规抗结核治疗2~3周,待全身状态改善后均采用一期前路结核病灶清除、髂骨椎间植骨融合、双钉棒内固定手术。术后继续系统抗结核治疗12~18个月。记录手术时间、术中出血量、并发症、植骨融合情况,比较术前、术后3个月及末次随访时VAS评分、Cobb角、ESR、CRP,观察末次随访时脊髓神经功能ASIA分级改善情况。结果手术时间120~225 min,术中出血量450~1 060 ml。术中及术后无严重并发症发生。患者均获得随访,时间12~22个月。术中切除病灶组织经病理检查均符合结核改变。末次随访时患者结核症状均消失,ESR及CRP恢复正常。植骨融合时间8~12个月。随访期间患者无移位、松动、断裂等并发症发生。末次随访神经功能ASIA分级:1例B级者恢复至C级,4例C级者3例恢复至D级、1例恢复至E级,18例D级者均恢复至E级。结论在全身有效标准化抗结核治疗基础上,一期前路结核病灶清除、髂骨植骨融合、双钉棒内固定手术治疗胸腰段脊柱结核疗效满意,有利于神经功能恢复,可矫正后凸畸形,恢复脊柱生物力学稳定性。     

Histochemical and contractile properties of striated muscles of urethra and levator ani of dogs and sheep

AIMS: To understand their possible importance in long- and short-term control of continence, some properties of the striated muscles of the urethra and pelvic floor (levator ani) of dogs and sheep were investigated, especially fiber types and contractile characteristics. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Striated muscles of urethra and levator ani of 29 male and 6 female dogs and 11 male and 6 female sheep were removed and cut into strips. Some strips were frozen and stained for ATPase at pH 9.4 and 4.3 for fiber typing; others were set up in an organ bath to study contractile responses to nerve stimulation. RESULTS: All muscles contained both type I (slow) and type II fibers, ranging from 97% type II in female greyhound urethra to 60% in female sheep levator ani. For each muscle, there were fewer type II muscles in sheep than in dog. The diameters of the urethral fibers were about 60% of the levator ani in dogs and 34% in sheep. Contraction of the urethral muscle was faster than for levator ani and declined to about 80% of the peak, 500 msec after the beginning of stimulation at 20 Hz. The levator ani contraction rose to a steady level as long as stimulation continued. CONCLUSIONS: Both the levator ani and urethral striated muscles contain slow and fast fiber types. The levator ani muscles are capable of sustained contraction with rapid onset which will produce long-term closure of the urethra. The circular urethral muscle contraction was faster but less well maintained.     

Recognition and management of phaeochromocytoma and paraganglioma

Phaeochromocytomas and paragangliomas (PPGL) are catecholamine-secreting neuroendocrine tumours arising from the chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla. These tumours may be identified incidentally, as part of a work-up for multiple endocrine neoplasia or following haemodynamic surges during unrelated procedures. Advances in perioperative management and improved management of intraoperative haemodynamic instability have significantly reduced surgical mortality from around 40% to less than 3%. Surgery is the definitive treatment in most cases and laparoscopic resection where possible is associated with improved outcomes. Anaesthetic management of PPGL cases represents a unique haemodynamic challenge both before and after tumour resection. In this article we describe the physiology of these tumours, their diagnosis, preoperative optimization methods, intraoperative anaesthetic management and management of postoperative complications.     

Incorporation and release of85Sr and14C-proline-hydroxyproline in mineral and collagen of bone and incisor teeth of growing rats

The extent to which exchange and reutilization processes of mineral tracers affect skeletal mineral accretion and resorption measurements was evaluated by comparing the rates of appearance and disappearance of⁸⁵Sr and¹⁴C-proline-hydroxyproline in bones and teeth in growing rats for 12 days following simultaneous parenteral injection of these tracers. Expressions for the relative rates of collagen synthesis and breakdown, which unlike mineral metabolism are considered not to be complicated by exchange phenomena, were based on¹⁴C-proline conversion to¹⁴C-hydroxyproline; the specific activity of the latter was determined. Both the mineral and the collagen specific activities reflected the rates and patterns of growth of the samples assayed; rapid growth and a short interval of time between formation and resorption of tissue in themetaphyseal bone which contains the cartilagineous growth plate, slow growth and an interval of time between formation and resorption of tissue indiaphyseal bone and incisor teeth which is longer than the 12 days of the experiment. However, in metaphyseal bone the specific activity collagen/mineral ratio dropped by one half during the 4–12 day interval in contrast to diaphyseal bone and incisor teeth in which no change in this ratio was observed during this period of time. The data indicate that collagen in the metaphyseal growth zone is removed by resorption before it has become fully mineralized, and that exchange is a relatively unimportant factor in the long term kinetics of bone mineral.

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Zusammenfassung Das Ausmaß, bis zu welchem Austausch- und Wiederverwendungsprozesse der mineralen Tracer die Messungen des mineralen Skelett-Auf- und Abbaues beeinflussen können, wurde ausgewertet; zu diesem Zweck wurde die Geschwindigkeit des Auftretens und Verschwindens von⁸⁵Sr und von¹⁴C-Prolin-Hydroxyprolin in Knochen und Zähnen von wachsenden Ratten während der 12 auf die simultane parenterale Injektion dieser Tracer folgenden Tage verglichen.Der Ausdruck für die relative Geschwindigkeit des Kollagen-Auf- und Abbaues, bei welchem im Gegensatz zum Mineralmetabolismus kein Mitwirken des Austauschphänomens vermutet wird, basiert auf der Umwandlung von¹⁴C-Prolin zu¹⁴C-Hydroxyprolin; die spezifische Aktivität des letzteren wurde bestimmt.Aus der spezifischen Aktivität des Minerals sowie jener des Kollagens konnten die Geschwindigkeit und die Art des Wachstums der untersuchten Proben ersehen werden, d.h.schnelles Wachstum und ein kurzes Zeitintervall zwischen Bildung und Resorption des Gewebes imKnochen der Metaphyse, die auch die knorpelige Wachstumsplatte enthält, und andererseitslangsames Wachstum und längeres Zeitintervall (länger als die 12 Tage des Experimentes) zwischen Bildung und Resorption des Gewebes imKnochen der Diaphyse und in den Schneidezähnen. Immerhin fiel die spezifische Aktivität des Kollagen/Mineral-Anteils im Knochen der Metaphyse während dem 4–12tägigen Zeitintervall auf die Hälfte, im Gegensatz zum Knochen der Diaphyse und der Schneidezähne, bei welchen während dieser Zeitspanne kein Unterschied in diesem Verhältnis beobachtet wurde.Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, daß Kollagen in der Wachstumszone der Metaphyse durch Resorption verschwindet, bevor es ganz mineralisiert ist, und daß der Austausch ein relativ unwichtiger Faktor in der Kinetik auf lange Sicht des Knochenminerals ist.

     

Instrumented ligamentotaxis and stabilization of compression and burst fractures of dorsolumbar and mid-lumbar spines

Background:

Controversy continues regarding the best treatment for compression and burst fractures. The axial distraction reduction utilizing the technique employing the long straight rod or curved short rod without derotation to reduce fracture are practised together with short segment posterolateral fusion (PLF). Effects of the early postoperative mobilization without posterolateral fusion on reduction maintenance and fracture consolidation were not evaluated so far. The present prospective study is designed to assess the effectiveness of i) reduction and restoration of sagittal alignment, ii) no posterolateral fusion on the reduced, fractured vertebral body and injured disc, iii) fracture consolidation and iv) the fate of the unfused cephalad and caudal injured motion segments of the fractured vertebra.

Materials and Methods:

The study includes 15 Denis burst and two Denis type D compression fractures between T₁₂ and L₃. The lordotic distraction technique was used for ligamentotaxis utilizing the contoured short rods and pedicle screw fixator. Three vertebrae including the fractured one were fixed. The patients after surgery were braced for ten weeks with activity restriction for 2-4 weeks. The patients were evaluated for change in vertebral body height, sagittal curve, reduction of retropulsion, improvement in neural deficit. The unfused motion segments, residual postoperative pain and bone and metal failure were also evaluated.

Results:

The preoperative and postreduction percentile vertebral heights at, zero (immediate postoperative), at three, six and 12 months followup were 62.4, 94.8, 94.6, 94.5 and 94.5%, respectively. The percentages of the intracanal fragment retropulsion at preoperative, and postoperative at zero, 3, 6 and 12 months followup were 59.0, 36.2,, 36.0, 32.3, and 13.6% respectively.The preoperative and postreduction percentile loss of the canal dimension and at zero, three, six and 12 months were 52.1, 45.0, 44.0, 41.0 and 29% respectively suggesting that the under-reduced fragment was being resorbed gradually by a remodeling process. The mean initial kyphosis of 33° became mean 2° immediately after reduction and mean 3° at the final followup. The fractured vertebral bodies consolidated in an average period of ten weeks (range 8-14 weeks). The restored disc heights were relatively well maintained throughout the observation period. All paraparetic patients recovered neurologically. There were no postoperative complications.

Conclusion:

Instrument-aided ligamentotaxis for compression and burst fractures utilizing the short contoured rod derotation technique and the instrumented stabilization of the fractured spine are found to be effective procedures which contribute to the fractured vertebral body consolidation without recollapse and maintain the motion segment function.     

Physiology and pharmacology of nausea and vomiting

Nausea and vomiting are both very unpleasant experiences. The physiology is poorly understood; however, understanding what we do know is key to tailoring a preventative or therapeutic antiemetic regime. There are two key sites in the central nervous system implicated in the organization of the vomiting reflex: the vomiting centre and the chemoreceptor trigger zone. There are five key neurotransmitters involved in afferent feedback to these areas. These are histamine (H₁ receptors), dopamine (D₂), serotonin (5-HT₃), acetyl choline (muscarinic) and neurokinin (substance P). Postoperative nausea and vomiting will occur in around one-third of elective patients who have no prophylaxis. This can result in many detrimental effects including patient dissatisfaction, unplanned admission and prolonged recovery. It is therefore essential that clinicians understand how they can prevent and treat nausea and vomiting using either a single agent or a combination of antiemetics to target relevant receptors. Commonly used drugs include antihistamines, dopamine antagonists, serotonin antagonists and steroids. More novel agents are being developed such as aprepitant, a neurokinin receptor antagonist, palonosetron, a 5HT₃ receptor antagonist and nabilone, a synthetic cannabinoid.     

Physiology and pharmacology of nausea and vomiting

Nausea and vomiting are both very unpleasant experiences. The physiology is poorly understood; however, understanding what we do know is key to tailoring a preventative or therapeutic antiemetic regime. There are two key sites in the central nervous system implicated in the organization of the vomiting reflex: the vomiting centre and the chemoreceptor trigger zone. There are five key neurotransmitters involved in afferent feedback to these areas. These are histamine (H₁ receptors), dopamine (D₂), serotonin (5-HT₃), acetyl choline (muscarinic) and neurokinin (substance P). Postoperative nausea and vomiting will occur in around one-third of elective patients who have no prophylaxis. This can result in many detrimental effects including patient dissatisfaction, unplanned admission and prolonged recovery. It is therefore essential that clinicians understand how they can prevent and treat nausea and vomiting using either a single agent or a combination of antiemetics to target relevant receptors. Commonly used drugs include antihistamines, dopamine antagonists, serotonin antagonists and steroids. More novel agents are being developed such as aprepitant, a neurokinin receptor antagonist, palonosetron, a 5HT₃ receptor antagonist, and nabilone, a synthetic cannabinoid.     

动静脉穿刺网络课件的开发及其应用

目的:确保护理教学效果,提高教学水平。方法:应用多项信息技术将动静脉穿刺技术制作成教学网络课件,并用于临床教学。结果:该课件在本校园网上运行半年余,2000余人次对其进行访问,受到师生好评。结论:该课件能及时反映动静脉穿刺的最新研究进展及具体操作步骤和使用方法,实现护理教学的直观性和交互性,对护理教学和临床带教指导有一定的借鉴作用。     

Physiology and pharmacology of nausea and vomiting

The physiology of nausea and vomiting is poorly understood. The initiation of vomiting varies and may be due to motion, pregnancy, chemotherapy, gastric irritation or postoperative causes. Once initiated, vomiting occurs in two stages, retching and expulsion. The muscles responsible for this sequence of events are controlled by either a vomiting centre or a central pattern generator, probably in the area postrema and the nearby nucleus tractus solitarius. Drugs which induce vomiting include ipecacuanha, a gastric irritant, and apomorphine, a dopamine-receptor agonist. Opioid drugs also induce vomiting, but opioid antagonists are not useful to treat nausea and vomiting. Anti-emetic drugs consist of a variety of neurotransmitter antagonists and may act in the periphery, the central nervous system or both sites. The most important drugs are antagonists at muscarinic, dopamine D₂, 5-HT₃, histamine H₁ and neurokinin NK₁ receptors. These drugs are discussed with particular attention to post-operative nausea and vomiting (PONV).