Reconstruction of soft tissue defects of the lower limb using the free serratus anterior flap

Objective: To present the application and clinical results of soft tissue reconstruction of the lower limb with the free serratus anterior muscle flap. Methods: Twenty Chinese adult cadavers were studied to determine detailed anatomical information about the serratus anterior muscle flap. From 1997 to 2007, 82 patients with soft tissue defects of the lower limbs were treated with free serratus anterior muscle flaps and skin grafts. There were 24 females and 58 males, aged from 22 to 63 years (mean 34). The patients were followed up for an average of 30 months (range, 8 months–5 years). Results: All flaps survived except for one, in which necrosis occurred. Six patients developed partial necroses of the muscle flap or skin graft. Five of them healed with debridement or wound care, and one healed with a repeat skin graft. There was no notable donor site morbidity. Dysfunction of the shoulder was not found in any of the patients. Conclusion: The serratus anterior muscle flap is a good option for the treatment of soft tissue defects of the lower limb. This muscle flap has many advantages owing to its anatomical features.     

游离前锯肌肌瓣桥式移植修复踝部软组织缺损

目的总结游离前锯肌肌瓣桥式移植修复踝部软组织缺损的临床效果。方法应用游离前锯肌肌瓣桥式移植修复5例小腿软组织缺损。制备肌瓣及肩胛下旋肩胛血管,使血管蒂呈"T"形,与健侧小腿胫后动脉两断端行端端吻合,肌瓣和血管蒂用中厚网状游离皮片覆盖。结果肌瓣全部成活,术后恢复良好,效果满意。随访8个月至4年,未发现明显的供区功能障碍。供区与受区外形较好,健侧小腿经临床观察与多普勒检查,胫后动脉通畅。结论本方法适合修复小腿软组织缺损;对于仅有1条主要动脉保留者,不损伤健侧小腿胫后动脉,降低了对供区的损伤。     

Facial reconstruction using a combined flap of the subscapular axis simultaneously including separate medial and lateral scapular vascularized bone grafts

With the better understanding of the blood supply to the scapula, combined flaps of the lateral scapula along with the latissimus dorsi and/or serratus anterior are well known. The medial border of the scapula, in this respect, has been underused. The authors present a case report in which a conjoined combined free flap consisting of four free tissue transfers based on the subscapular axis was used in simultaneous reconstruction of a gunshot wound to the face. This included a medial scapular osteofasciocutaneous flap for the mandible, a lateral scapular osseous flap for the anterior maxilla, a serratus anterior muscle flap for the cheek, and a separate latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap for the forehead. This flap was successful and provides another alternative to the resolution of complex problems needing multiple areas of both soft-tissue coverage and vascularized bone graft.     

Dorsal hand coverage with free serratus fascia flap

In reconstructing a defect on the dorsum of the hand, with the extensor tendons exposed or even missing, functional, as well as cosmetic, goals are of major importance. The authors present three cases of extensor tendon reconstruction, combined with soft-tissue reconstruction, with the free serratus fascia flap, the connective tissue over the serratus muscle, for dorsal hand coverage. The flap consists of thin and well-vascularized pliable tissue, with gliding properties excellent for covering exposed tendons. It is based on the branches of the thoracodorsal artery, which are raised in the flap, leaving the long thoracic nerve intact on the serratus muscle. Coverage of the flap with split-thickness skin graft is done immediately. The free serratus fascia flap is an ideal flap for dorsal hand coverage when the extensor tendons are exposed, especially because of low donor-site morbidity.     

Use of the latissimus dorsi and the serratus anterior muscles as a combined flap

Flaps composed of the latissimus dorsi and the serratus anterior muscles have been used to repair extensive defects in 10 patients with no remarkable disabilities of shoulder function. The latissimus dorsi and serratus anterior muscles are consistently nourished through the subscapular-thoracodorsal vessels. Thus, the 2 flaps can be based on 1 vascular pedicle. If required, the ribs beneath the serratus anterior muscle, which are vascularized by the periosteal circulation, can be transferred with the muscle. The vascular pedicle of this flap is long and anatomically reliable. Care must be taken to avoid tension or torsion of the pedicle when positioning the flap.     

Anomalous blood supply to the serratus anterior/rib composite flap

The serratus anterior muscle and rib composite flap has been well described for oral and mandibular reconstruction. The flap may also be used in combination with the latissimus dorsi flap based on the common thoracodorsal vascular pedicle, a blood supply which has hitherto been proven to be reliable. This case demonstrates a totally independent arterial supply to the serratus anterior and latissimus dorsi muscles.     

Foot reconstruction using a serratus anterior muscle flap from the same donor site after failure of a thoracodorsal artery perforator flap

The free flap failure rate for the lower extremities is high, which adversely affects limb salvage efforts. In this article, we report a case of failure of a thoracodorsal artery perforator flap, which was simultaneously reconstructed with a serratus anterior muscle flap from the same donor site. A 56‐year‐old male patient had infected wound for 3 months due to Achilles tendon rupture. We reconstructed the defect using a thoracodorsal artery perforator flap. However, 2 days after the operation, we found the congested flap. We were obliged to discard the whole flap and harvested a serratus anterior muscle flap from the same donor site. The patient's foot healed uneventfully. After flap failure, the use of a second free flap from the same donor site may be an effective and safe procedure in specific cases. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery 34:153–156, 2014.     

One-stage reconstruction of facial paralysis associated with skin/soft tissue defects using latissimus dorsi compound flap.

Neurovascular free muscle transfer is now the mainstay for smile reconstruction in the treatment of established facial paralysis. Since facial paralysis due to ablative surgery or some specific disease sometimes accompanies defects of the facial skin and soft tissue, simultaneous reconstruction of defective tissues with facial reanimation is required. The present paper reports results for 16 patients who underwent reconstruction by simultaneous soft tissue flap transfer with latissimus dorsi muscle for smile reconstruction of the paralysed face. Soft tissue flaps comprised skin paddle overlying the latissimus dorsi muscle (n=6), serratus anterior musculocutaneous flap (n=5), serratus anterior muscle flap (n=2), and latissimus dorsi perforator-based flap with a small muscle cuff (n=3). The latissimus dorsi muscle can be elevated as a compound flap of various types, and thus offers the best option as a donor muscle for facial reanimation when soft tissue defects require simultaneous reconstruction.     

Lower extremity soft tissue defect reconstruction with the serratus anterior flap

Reconstruction of limb‐threatening lower extremity defects presents unique challenges. The selected method must provide adequate coverage of exposed bone, joints, and tendons while maximizing function of the limb. The traditional workhorse flaps, the free latissimus dorsi and rectus abdominis flaps, have been associated with donor site morbidity and bulkiness that can impair rehabilitation. We report a case series (n = 18) in which the free serratus anterior muscle flap and split thickness skin graft (STSG) was used for lower limb soft tissue coverage. Injuries were due to diabetes (9/18), trauma (7/18), and chronic venous stasis (2/18). A 94% flap survival rate was observed and all but one patient was ambulatory. No donor site morbidity was reported. Our series demonstrates that serratus anterior is an advantageous, reliable free flap with minimal donor site morbidity. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery 34:183–187, 2014.     

The serratus anterior free flap in limb reconstruction. About 30 cases

Between 2001 and 2003, 30 serratus anterior free flaps have been realized in our unit for reconstruction of lower limb. The flaps were indicated for repair of traumatic soft tissue defect in 19 cases, for chronic wound in six cases, for purpura fulminans in two cases, for pressure sore in one case and after tumor resection in 1 case. There were 29 patients: 25 males and four females. They ranged in age from 5 to 64 years. The size of the soft tissue defects ranged between 15 and 180 cm(2). Four different types of serratus anterior flaps were used: 20 muscle flaps ; four myocutaneous flaps ; five costo-osteomuscular flap ; one costo-osteomyocutaneous flap . In all cases we used osteo flap (8 th rib) in order to restore bone defect, which ranged from 9 to 15 cm. Necrosis occurred in two flaps because of venous thrombosis. The functional outcome was good for all patients and the aesthetic sequelae at the donor site were considered as minor. The serratus anterior flap can be used in many different ways: different kinds of flaps (osteo-cutaneous-muscle); very variable size of flap (15 to 180 cm(2) in our series) , different length of pedicle possible. Because of his versatility and his absence of major functional or aesthetic sequelae the serratus anterior free flap has become day by day our favourite option in limb reconstruction.     

Reconstruction of the form and function of lateral malleolus and ankle joint

Soft-tissue reconstruction alone cannot obtain normal ankle function in patients with large defects in the area of the lateral malleolus. The authors report a functional reconstructive method for the lateral malleolus, utilized in a male patient whose osteosarcoma in the fibula was resected with surrounding soft tissue. In order to reconstruct the lateral malleolus, the remaining half of the fibula at the knee was removed, and the fibular head was fixed with the tibia at the ankle joint. Ligaments were reconstructed with tendon grafts. Skin and soft-tissue defects were reconstructed with a combined composite flap comprised of a latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flap and a serratus anterior muscle flap. Dead space around the bone graft was filled with the serratus anterior muscle flap that was divided into two portions. The surface was covered with the latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flap. The patient regained almost normal function of the ankle joint. This technique would be a useful functional reconstructive method for patients with large defects in the area of the lateral malleolus.     

The free serratus anterior artery perforator flap—A case report and anatomic study

We report a reconstructive case using a free serratus anterior artery perforator flap and an anatomic study. A 50‐year‐old man with upper esophageal sphincter stricture underwent segmental cervical esophageal resection. The size of the defect was approximately 5.5 cm. We then performed esophageal reconstruction using the free serratus anterior artery perforator flap. Esophagography performed on postoperative day 7 revealed no definite leakage and a viable anastomosis site with wide patency. No complications developed during the long‐term follow‐up period of 3 years. We reviewed the literature and performed an anatomic study using four fresh cadavers. We performed an angiographic study using two specimens and dissection of this perforator using other two specimens. We found that a direct connection existed between the serratus anterior artery and intercostal perforator to the skin in two of eight chests. The connection was located at the 4th intercostal space in the left chest of one cadaver and at the 6th/7th intercostal space in the left chest of the other cadaver. The free serratus anterior artery perforator flap is a new flap that could be considered for use during the elevation of a perforator flap in the lateral chest area, and especially in the area overlying the serratus anterior muscle. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery 36:339–344, 2016.     

Single pedicle microvascular transfers of the serratus anterior and latissimus dorsi muscles in rats

In the rat, the serratus anterior and latissimus dorsi muscles receive axial vascular pedicles from the thoracodorsal artery. This anatomy was confirmed by dissections, and 10 microvascular transfers of the latissimus-serratus flap on a common pedicle were performed with a 90% success rate. The flaps had an average weight of 1.8 g. This flap is a reliable small animal model for microvascular muscle transplants and contains sufficient tissue to be used in multiple biochemical assays.     

Serratus anterior venous tributary as a second outflow vein in latissimus dorsi free flaps

The latissimus dorsi (LD) flap is a large and reliable myocutaneous flap with a consistently long vascular pedicle. However, the limitation of the thoracodorsal pedicle is that it has only one draining vein for anastomosis. We describe a simple technique of recruiting the tributary vein to the serratus anterior and using it as a second draining vein to alleviate congestion in lower limb reconstruction. The serratus anterior venous tributary segment is cut back to an avalvular segment which averages 5 mm in length. Provision of an additional venous outflow to the flap enabled a second venous anastomosis to the short saphenous vein (N = 1), the long saphenous vein (N = 2), a deep vein (N= 1), and to a deep vein via a vein graft (N = 1), respectively. Five patients with degloving injury of the lower extremity of sizes 150 cm(2) (10 × 15 cm) to 260 cm(2) (10 × 26 cm) underwent successful reconstruction using the LD muscle flap with the serratus anterior tributary vein as a second outflow vein. This serratus anterior venous tributary serves as a useful second outflow channel for alleviating venous congestion during lower limb reconstructive surgery and should be routinely preserved as a lifeboat.     

前锯肌肌肉筋膜瓣桥式移植修复小腿软组织缺损

目的 总结游离前锯肌肌肉筋膜瓣桥式移植修复小腿软组织缺损的临床应用经验.方法 2006年9月至2009年1月应用游离前锯肌肌肉筋膜瓣桥式移植修复7例小腿软组织缺损.肌肉筋膜瓣切取连带肩胛下与旋肩胛血管,血管蒂呈T形,与健侧小腿胫后动脉两断端行端端吻合,肌肉筋膜瓣及其血管蒂用中厚皮片网状移植覆盖.结果 7例肌肉筋膜瓣全部成活.术后经过顺利,取得了较满意的效果.随访9～42个月,供区无明显功能障碍,且供、受区外形均较好.健侧小腿经临床观察与多普勒超声血流探测仪检查,胫后动脉通畅.结论 该术式适宜修复小腿软组织缺损仅有1条主要动脉者,不损伤健侧小腿胫后动脉,且对供区的损伤也较轻.

Abstract：

Objective To investigate the application of free anterior serratus musculo-fascial flap in bridge style for the soft tissue defect at leg.Methods From Sept.2006 to Jan.2009,the free anterior serratus musculo-fascial flaps were used in bridge style in 7 cases with soft tissue defects at legs.The anterior serratus musculo-fascial flaps were elevated with subscapular and circumflex scapular vessels forming a T-shaped vascular pedicles.The T-shaped pedicle was end-to-end anastomosed with the two ends of the posterior tibial artery at the healthy leg.The musculo-fascial flap and its pedicle were covered with skin graft.Results All the 7 flaps survived completely with satisfactory result.The patients were followed up for 9-42 months with good functional and esthetic result both in donor site and recipient site.The patency of posterior tibial artery was demonstrated by clinical and Doppler examination.Conclusions This technique is particularly useful in leg reconstructive surgery when only one vessel remains.The patency of the posterior tibial artery at the healthy leg is preserved and the morbidity in donor site is minimal.     

The serratus anterior/rib composite flap in mandibular reconstruction

A flap comprising the serratus anterior muscle and the underlying rib, based on the serratus branches of the thoracodorsal artery has been developed. In addition to the rib the potential exists to include a cartilaginous growth centre, a functional muscle and/or overlying skin. A latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous unit can be included on a common pedicle. This paper describes its use as both a free and a pedicled composite unit in mandibular reconstruction. The surgical anatomy of the flap is reviewed and cases are shown to illustrate its use in the treatment of congenital, malignant and post-traumatic conditions where reconstruction of the lower jaw is required.     

Microvascular transfer of anterior and posterior gracilis muscles in rats

A microvascular free muscle flap in rats using the anterior and posterior gracilis muscles with femoral vessels as its pedicle is presented. The gracilis muscles form a single unit supplied by the muscular branch artery and vein, averaging 0.3 mm and 0.4 mm in diameter, respectively. These small sizes preclude their use in transplantation. However, the muscular branch vessels in continuity with the femoral vessels can be used for the vascular pedicle in this muscle transplant. This muscle flap was transplanted to the contralateral femoral vessels by end-to-end anastomosis in 15 rats. Thirteen animals survived and 11 flaps were viable at 3 days for a success rate of 85%. The gracilis flaps averaged 674 mg in weight, 1.87 cm X 1.36 cm in size, and 7.23 mm in pedicle length. This free muscle flap model is reliable, relatively easy to perform, and provides adequate muscle bulk for pharmacologic and biochemical studies in transplanted muscle. No lower extremity complications were noted following femoral vessel ligations.     

Activation time course of activator protein-1 and effect of proline dithiocarbamate during ischemia-reperfusion in rat skeletal muscle

In this report the authors describe a new method that avoids autocannibalization by free transfer of a flap to the dorsum of the rat by means of a simple exposure technique. A total of 22 Wistar rats of both sexes (weight, 200-290 g) were used in this experiment. An anatomic study performed in 12 rats revealed that a wide exposure could be created in the axillary fossa by retracting the inferior tip of the scapular bone superiorly (after severing its attachments with the deep extrinsic back muscles), the latissimus dorsi muscle laterally, and the serratus anterior muscle medially. Furthermore, after obtaining vessel diameter measurements, it was ascertained that the subscapular and the lateral thoracic vessels could serve as the recipient vessels. Based on the anatomic study, a total of 10 conventional groin cutaneous flaps, measuring 2 x 3 cm in size, were harvested based on the femoral vessels and transferred to the dorsum of the same animal by the exposure method as just described, with microvascular anastomoses performed between the femoral vessels of the flap and either the subscapular artery and the lateral thoracic vein (N = 5) or the lateral thoracic artery and vein (N = 5). Results showed that 9 of the 10 transplanted flaps were totally viable on postoperative day 7, giving a success rate of 90%, with one failing flap belonging to the latter group. The authors conclude that by this simple method of recipient vessel exposure in the axillary fossa, free flap transfer to the dorsum of the rat is a simple and reproducible technique by microvascular anastomoses performed between the pedicle vessels of a flap and the subscapular artery and the lateral thoracic vein. This model offers the unique advantage of a dorsally located flap that is protected by autocannibalization. Moreover, daily observation and monitoring of the flap are easy and practical without the need to have the animal wear protective material such as vest.     

A case of post-upper lobectomy empyema treated by serratus anterior muscle and pedicled latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flaps plombage via open-window thoracostomy.

A 62-year-old male was admitted to our hospital for operation for Aspergillus empyema with a fungus ball in the right upper lobe. We performed a right upper lobectomy and decortication of the middle and lower lobes through a standard posterolateral thoracotomy with dissection of the latissimus dorsi and serratus anterior muscles, in October 2000. Twenty-one days postoperatively (POD), he developed an empyema and a bronchopleural fistula. We performed open-window thoracostomy through the axilla with removal of the third and fourth ribs at 41 POD, and sterilized the open drainage cavity in the out-patient clinic 11 months after discharge. Although the condition of the bronchopleural fistulas was not improved, and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was found in the purulent discharge, the discharge decreased. Finally, a pedicled latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous and serratus anterior muscle flap plombage was performed 11 months after initial operation. The patient is now well and works as a driver 21 months after discharge. We conclude that muscle flaps of the pedicled latissimus dorsi and serratus anterior muscles can be useful for plombage of the cavity in cases of post-standard thoracotomy.     

One stage reconstruction of the skull defect following chronic osteomyelitis using a serratus anterior muscle rib osteomyocutaneous free flap

Summary In two cases of chronic osteomyelitis following craniotomy, removal of the bone flaps and debridement were performed. The defects in the calvarial bone and the scalp were immediately reconstructed in a one-stage operation using an osteomyocutaneous free flap consisting of the serratus anterior muscle and rib.