人参皂甙调节大鼠自发睡眠脑电结构的机制

目的初步探索人参皂甙(GS)调节自发睡眠的作用机制。方法大鼠随机分为对照、GS低和高(10和100 mg/kg)剂量组。在大鼠体内植入无线发射器,术后每日1次灌胃给药,共6 d。第1(急性)和6天(慢性)给药后记录自由活动大鼠脑电活动12 h。于第1和6天取下丘脑组织用免疫印迹方法检测GABAAergic系统蛋白表达。结果 GS灌胃给药第1天,高剂量GS显著增加非快动眼睡眠(NREM)[(8.002±0.427)h vs(6.363±0.542)h,P<0.05]和总睡眠时间[(9.397±0.313)h vs(7.548±0.562)h,P<0.01],减少觉醒[(2.463±0.288)h vs(4.376±0.572)h,P<0.01];GS低和高剂量都增强了下丘脑GABAA受体α、β亚型表达(P<0.05)。第6天,低、高剂量GS均显著提高NREM睡眠[(7.587±0.174)h,(7.610±0.204)h vs(6.799±0.302)h,P<0.05]和总睡眠时间[(8.974±0.191)h,(8.967±0.249)h vs(8.008±0.359)h,P<0.05],减少觉醒[(3.13...     

可卡因戒断对大鼠睡眠结构和脑电功率谱的影响

目的: 探索可卡因戒断对睡眠觉醒活动的影响。方法: 大鼠体内植入无线发射器,用药前、停药第1 d(急性)、8 d(亚急性)、14 d(亚慢性)记录自由活动大鼠脑电波24 h。结果: 停药第1 d睡眠觉醒周期上升(P<0.05)。停药第8 d夜晚和白天,非快动眼睡眠(NREM)增加(P<0.05),快动眼睡眠(REM)下降(P<0.01);停药第14 d,NREM睡眠夜晚显著增加(P<0.01)而白天仅略加强,白天和夜间REM睡眠均明显下降(P<0.01)。停药期间白天和夜间总睡眠无明显变化。整个实验期间,NREM、REM睡眠和觉醒状态的δ、θ 和α脑电功率谱均无显著变化。结论: 可卡因戒断所致睡眠障碍主要由于快、慢波睡眠间而非睡眠与觉醒间异动。急性戒断造成睡眠觉醒间转换异常,而睡眠结构失调则发生在亚急性和亚慢性戒断期间。     

慢性应激抑郁模型大鼠下丘脑-垂体-肾上腺轴负反馈功能与蒙药槟榔十三味丸的干预

背景:抑郁症是具有很高的致死、致残率,严重威胁着人类健康的常见精神疾患。临床上应用槟榔十三味丸治疗抑郁症取得良好的疗效。但其作用机制尚未明确。目的:观察蒙药槟榔十三味丸对慢性应激抑郁模型大鼠下丘脑-垂体-肾上腺轴负反馈功能的影响,探讨槟榔十三味丸抗抑郁作用机制。方法:80只Wistar雄性大鼠,根据蔗糖水消耗量随机分为正常对照组、模型组、氟西汀组、槟榔十三味丸低、中、高剂量组、RU486组和槟榔十三味丸低、中、高剂量+RU486组,每组8只。除正常对照组外,其余大鼠均采用慢性应激结合孤养方法制备抑郁模型,槟榔十三味丸低、中、高剂量组大鼠在造模同时连续28 d灌胃槟榔十三味丸0.2,0.4,0.8 g/kg;正常对照组和模型组大鼠灌胃羧甲基纤维素钠;RU486组大鼠自造模第21天起腹部皮下注射糖皮质激素受体拮抗剂RU486;槟榔十三味丸低、中、高剂量+RU486组大鼠在造模同时灌胃槟榔十三味丸0.2,0.4,0.8 g/kg,且自造模第21天起腹部皮下注射RU486。结果与结论:与正常对照组相比,模型组及RU486组大鼠肾上腺皮质酮水平显著升高(P0.05),海马、下丘脑、垂体糖皮质激素受体m RNA表达显著下降,下丘脑促肾上腺皮质激素释放激素m RNA表达显著增多;与模型组相比,灌胃槟榔十三味丸的大鼠肾上腺皮质酮水平降低,海马、下丘脑、垂体糖皮质激素受体m RNA表达明显增多,下丘脑促肾上腺皮质激素释放激素m RNA表达水平显著降低;且与RU486组相比,同时灌胃槟榔十三味丸的大鼠肾上腺皮质酮、海马、下丘脑、垂体糖皮质激素受体m RNA、下丘脑促肾上腺皮质激素释放激素m RNA表达水平也出现改变。提示槟榔十三味丸对糖皮质激素的过度分泌有直接的调控作用,并可通过增强糖皮质激素受体m RNA的表达及降低促肾上腺皮质激素释放激素m RNA的表达,改善下丘脑-垂体-肾上腺轴负反馈中枢的功能障碍。当下丘脑-垂体-肾上腺轴负反馈通路被阻断后,槟榔十三味丸作用减弱。     

小檗碱调节睡眠剥夺大鼠的肠道菌群结构以及Th17/Treg细胞平衡

目的研究小檗碱对睡眠剥夺大鼠肠道菌群以及辅助性T细胞17(Th17)和调解性T细胞(Treg)细胞的影响。方法将大鼠随机分为对照组、模型组、低和高剂量小檗碱组(BBR1和BBR2,100和200 mg/kg,灌胃10 d干预)。小站台水环境法建立睡眠剥夺模型。检测大鼠直肠内容物中细菌数量,流式细胞计量技术分析大鼠肠道Th17/Treg细胞比值,并检测肠道白介素17(IL-17)、RAR相关孤儿受体(ROR)C和叉头框蛋白P3(Foxp3)表达。结果模型组大鼠肠道内产气荚膜梭菌数量增加(P0.05),而其他检测菌群数量降低(P0.05);Th17/Treg细胞比值升高(P0.05);IL-17和RORC表达升高(P0.05),Foxp3表达降低(P0.05)。小檗碱处理降低产气荚膜梭菌数量(P0.05),增加其他检测菌群的数量(P0.05);降低Th17/Treg细胞比值(P0.05);下调IL-17和RORC表达(P0.05),上调Foxp3表达(P0.05)。结论小檗碱能够拮抗睡眠剥夺诱导的大鼠肠道菌群结构和Th17/Treg细胞失衡。     

睡眠剥夺对健康成人睡眠脑电图的变化观察

目的：探索睡眠剥夺对健康成人睡眠脑电图（PSG）的影响.方法：选择34名健康成人志愿者行睡眠剥夺36h,作睡眠剥夺前后的PSG整夜监测.结果：与睡眠剥夺前相比,健康成人PSG表现为睡眠潜伏期缩短（P＜0.05）,NREM中的第1阶段睡眠减少（P＜0.05）,第4阶段（S4）睡眠增多（P＜0.01）.结论：睡眠剥夺后再睡眠,健康成人通过其NREM睡眠阶段中S4的比例作为“补偿”.睡眠剥夺可影响健康成人的脑电生理活动.     

多巴胺受体在大鼠嗅球的表达及其在帕金森病大鼠嗅觉障碍中的作用

目的 观察多巴胺受体在大鼠嗅球（OB）的表达与分布,探讨左旋多巴（L-DOPA）治疗对帕金森病（PD）大鼠嗅觉的影响。 方法 采用免疫印迹、免疫荧光等方法观察多巴胺受体在大鼠OB中的表达;6-羟多巴胺（6-OHDA）双侧注射建立PD大鼠模型,检测L-DOPA治疗对PD大鼠嗅觉功能及谷氨酸脱羧酶（GAD）和脑源性神经营养因子（BNDF）表达的影响。 结果 嗅球内D1和D2两种多巴胺受体亚型表达含量高。D1和D2在颗粒细胞层（GCL）内GAD阳性的γ-氨基丁酸（GABA）能神经元上大量表达,被酪氨酸羟化酶（TH）阳性神经纤维终末包绕。PD大鼠OB内GCL层TH蛋白表达明显下降（0.05±0.01 vs 0.01±0.00,P<0.001）。L-DOPA治疗后,PD大鼠找寻食物小球时间显著降低［（624.4±113.4）s vs(312.4±79.35)s,P<0.05］,OB内BDNF表达显著升高（0.02±0.01 vs 0.07±0.01,P<0.01）。 结论 D1和D2在GCL层GABA能神经元大量表达。L-DOPA治疗可缓解PD大鼠嗅觉障碍,可能与激活OB内GABA能神经元上的D1和D2复合体,进而改善BDNF表达有关。     

芫荽黄酮调控DDAH-ADMA-NOS通路对动脉性阴茎勃起功能障碍大鼠的治疗作用及对阴茎海绵体超微结构的影响

目的 探讨芫荽黄酮通过不对称二甲基精氨酸二甲胺水解酶（DDAH）-不对称二甲基精氨酸（ADMA）-一氧化氮氧合酶（NOS）通路对动脉性阴茎勃起功能障碍（APED）大鼠的治疗作用及其阴茎海绵体超微结构变化的影响。方法 建立APED模型。芫荽黄酮低、中、高剂量组（各11只）分别予以22.4、44.8、89.6 mg/kg芫荽黄酮溶于1 mL/100 g大鼠体质量无菌生理盐水中灌胃，西地那非组（11只）予以10.5 mg/kg西地那非溶于1 mL/100 g大鼠体质量无菌生理盐水中灌胃，模型组（10只）和假手术组（11只）仅予以等量无菌生理盐水灌胃，每天1次，共4周。结果 建模大鼠未检测到阴茎明显勃起；西地那非组和芫荽黄酮低中高剂量组可增加阴茎勃起次数、最大阴茎海绵体神经内压（Max ICP）、血清睾酮（T）和阴茎海绵体组织环磷酸鸟苷（cGMP）水平（P<0.05），降低阴茎海绵体组织ADMA水平（P<0.05），升高DDAH1、DDAH2、nNOS、eNOS mRNA和蛋白表达（P<0.05），改善阴茎海绵体超微结构。芫荽黄酮3剂量组呈剂量依赖性。结论 芫荽黄酮对APED...     

脑梗死患者记忆减退与快速眼动睡眠的关系

目的：探讨脑梗死患者记忆减退与快速眼动（ＲＥＭ）睡眠的关系。方法：对４０例脑梗死患者进行记忆测定和多导睡眠图通宵描记,分析有关睡眠参数并与２２名正常人比较。结果：脑梗死患者睡眠潜伏期长,醒转次数增多,总睡眠时间减少,睡眠效率低,ＲＥＭ时间减少,ＲＥＭ活动度和密度均降低（Ｐ＜００１）,其记忆减退与ＲＥＭ减少具有相关性（ｒ＝０６８,Ｐ＜００１）。结论：脑梗死患者不但有睡眠量的减少而且有睡眠质的改变,尤其ＲＥＭ睡眠减少与记忆减退有密切关系。     

基于PI3K/AKT/FoxO1信号通路探究补阳还五汤对痛风模型大鼠滑膜组织细胞凋亡及炎症反应的影响

目的 基于磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶（PI3K）/蛋白激酶B(AKT)/叉头框转录因子O亚族1(FoxO1)信号通路探究补阳还五汤对痛风模型大鼠滑膜组织细胞凋亡及炎症反应的影响。方法 大鼠分为对照组（灌胃生理盐水）、痛风组（建模+灌胃生理盐水）、西药组（建模+灌胃20 mg/kg苯溴马隆）、补阳还五汤低、高剂量组（建模+灌胃6.5、26.0 g/kg补阳还五汤）和通路激活组（建模+灌胃26.0 g/kg补阳还五汤+腹腔注射0.02 mg/kg PI3K活化物（740Y-P））。测量大鼠关节肿胀度,测定血清尿酸、肿瘤坏死因子-α(TNF-α)、白细胞介素-1β(IL-1β)水平,对滑膜组织进行HE染色及TUNEL检测,测定滑膜组织中p-PI3K/PI3K、pAKT/AKT、p-FoxO1/FoxO1、Caspase-3蛋白表达水平。结果 与对照组相比,痛风组大鼠关节肿胀度及血清尿酸、TNF-α、IL-1β水平及滑膜组织中p-PI3K/PI3K、p-AKT/AKT、p-FoxO1/FoxO1蛋白表达水平显著升高（P<0.05）,滑膜组织中细胞凋亡率及Caspase-3蛋白表达水平显著降低（P...     

氯沙坦钾下调尿酸性肾纤维化大鼠肾小管上皮细胞尿酸转运蛋白-1的表达

目的研究氯沙坦钾对高尿酸血症致尿酸性肾纤维化大鼠肾小管上皮细胞尿酸转运蛋白-1(URAT1)表达的影响。方法将大鼠随机分为正常组、模型组(以腺嘌呤100 mg/kg+乙胺丁醇250 mg/kg的混悬液灌胃造模)、氯沙坦钾低、中和高剂量灌胃治疗组[分别为25、50和75 mg/(kg·d)]。各组于造模后第1、2、3和4周检测大鼠血尿酸、血肌酐、尿素氮、尿酸、尿肌酐和尿酸排泄分数,用HE和Masson染色法观察尿酸性肾纤维化大鼠病理变化,Western blot检测肾小管上皮细胞URAT-1蛋白的表达。结果随着时间的延长,模型组大鼠血尿酸水平显著高于正常组(P0.01),尿尿酸水平低于正常组(P0.01);各治疗组血尿酸水平下降,尿尿酸水平升高,以高剂量组为著(P0.05);模型组肾小管间质损伤指数明显高于同期正常组(P0.05),氯沙坦钾干预后肾小管间质损伤指数明显降低(P0.05); URAT1蛋白表达在模型组各时间段升高(P0.05),且随着病理损害的进展呈现上升趋势,经氯沙坦钾干预后表达明显下降(P0.05)。结论氯沙坦钾可下调URAT1高表达,降低高尿酸血症大鼠的血尿酸水平。     

Neuropeptide-Y Y2-receptor agonist, PYY3-36 promotes non-rapid eye movement sleep in rat

PYY3-36 is a major component of the gut-brain axis and peripheral administration has been reported to exert significant effects on feeding, brain function and is more selective for neuropeptide Y2 receptor. Therefore, we investigated the effects of nocturnal intraperitoneal administration of single doses of PYY3-36 (30 and 100 microg/kg i.p.) on food intake, water intake and the sleep-wake cycle in rats. Sleep recordings were carried out in male Sprague-Dawley rats implanted with cortical electroencephalogram (EEG) and neck electromyogram (EMG) electrodes. The EEG, EMG, food intake and water intake were assessed. The electrographic recordings obtained were scored visually as rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, non-REM (NREM) sleep and wakefulness. PYY3-36 administration 15 min prior to dark onset significantly (p<0.05) increased non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep and decreased wakefulness. Analysis of the dark-period at 4-h time intervals showed that nocturnal administration of PYY3-36 (30 and 100 microg/kg) significantly suppressed wakefulness and increased non-REM sleep during the first 4-h time interval. Time spent in wakefulness was significantly decreased after administration of PYY3-36 (30 and 100 microg/kg) when compared with administration of vehicle. In addition, PYY3-36 (30 and 100 microg/kg i.p.) induced an increase in the time spent in NREM sleep. The nocturnal intraperitoneal administration of the lower dose of PYY3-36 (30 microg/kg) also significantly decreased food intake [F (2,23)=4.90, p<0.05] but had no effect on water intake. These findings suggest that PYY3-36 may play an important role in the enhancement of NREM sleep and feeding behavior.     

Pontine reticular formation (PnO) administration of hypocretin-1 increases PnO GABA levels and wakefulness

STUDY OBJECTIVES: GABAergic transmission in the oral part of the pontine reticular formation (PnO) increases wakefulness. The hypothalamic peptide hypocretin-1 (orexin A) promotes wakefulness, and the PnO receives hypocretinergic input. The present study tested the hypothesis that PnO administration of hypocretin-1 increases PnO GABA levels and increases wakefulness. This study also tested the hypothesis that wakefulness is either increased or decreased, respectively, by PnO administration of drugs known to selectively increase or decrease GABA levels. DESIGN: Awithin-subjects design was used for microdialysis and microinjection experiments. SETTING: University of Michigan. PATIENTS OR PARTICIPANTS: Experiments were performed using adult male Crl:CD (SD)IGS BR (Sprague-Dawley) rats (n=46). INTERVENTIONS: PnO administration of hypocretin-1, nipecotic acid (a GABA uptake inhibitor that increases extracellular GABA levels), 3-mercaptopropionic acid (a GABA synthesis inhibitor that decreases extracellular GABA levels; 3-MPA), and Ringer solution (vehicle control). MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Dialysis administration of hypocretin-1 to the PnO caused a statistically significant, concentration-dependent increase in PnO GABA levels. PnO microinjection of hypocretin-1 or nipecotic acid caused a significant increase in wakefulness and a significant decrease in non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep and REM sleep. Microinjecting 3-MPA into the PnO caused a significant increase in NREM sleep and REM sleep and a significant decrease in wakefulness. CONCLUSIONS: An increase or a decrease in PnO GABA levels causes an increase or decrease, respectively, in wakefulness. Hypocretin-1 may promote wakefulness, at least in part, by increasing GABAergic transmission in the PnO.     

Effects of eszopiclone and zolpidem on sleep and waking states in the adult guinea pig

STUDY OBJECTIVE: The present study was designed to compare and contrast the effects of eszopiclone and zolpidem on the states of sleep and wakefulness in chronically instrumented, unanesthetized adult guinea pigs. DESIGN: Adult guinea pigs were implanted with electrodes to record sleep and waking states and to perform a frequency analysis of the EEG. Eszopiclone (1 and 3 mg/kg) and zolpidem (1 and 3 mg/kg) were administered intraperitoneally. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: The administration of eszopiclone (1 and 3 mg/kg) resulted in a significant dose-dependent increase in NREM sleep. Zolpidem produced a significant increase in NREM sleep, but only at a dose of 3 mg/kg. The following changes in NREM and REM sleep, as well as in the power spectra, were all significant when the effects of 1 and 3 mg/kg of eszopiclone were compared with responses induced with 1 and 3 mg/kg of zolpidem, respectively: The increase in NREM sleep produced by eszopiclone was greater than that following the administration of zolpidem. The mean latency to NREM sleep following the administration of eszopiclone was significantly shorter than zolpidem. Eszopiclone significantly increased the latency to REM sleep. The mean duration of episodes of NREM sleep was increased by eszopiclone, but not by zolpidem. The EEG power increased in the delta band and decreased in the theta band during NREM sleep following the administration of eszopiclone. No significant changes occurred in any of the frequency bands analyzed following zolpidem administration. CONCLUSIONS: The differences in the effects of eszopiclone and zolpidem on sleep and waking states and the power spectra of the EEG likely reflect the fact that eszopiclone and zolpidem bind to different subunits of the GABAA receptor complex.     

Control of hypoglossal motoneurones during naturally occurring sleep and wakefulness in the intact,unanaesthetized cat: a field potential study

The present electrophysiological study was designed to determine the discharge threshold of hypoglossal motoneurones during naturally occurring states of sleep and wakefulness in the intact, unanaesthetized cat. The antidromic field potential, which reflects the net level of membrane excitability of motoneurones and therefore their discharge threshold, was recorded in the hypoglossal nucleus following stimulation of the hypoglossal nerve. The amplitude of the antidromic field potential was larger during wakefulness and non‐rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep compared with REM sleep. There was no significant difference in the amplitude of the field potential when wakefulness was compared with NREM sleep (P = 0.103, df = 3, t = 2.324). However, there was a 46% reduction in amplitude during REM sleep compared with NREM sleep (P < 0.001, df = 10, t = 6.421) or wakefulness (P < 0.01, df = 4, t = ?4.598). These findings indicate that whereas the excitability of motoneurones that comprise the hypoglossal motor pool is relatively constant during wakefulness and NREM sleep, their excitability is significantly reduced during REM sleep. This state‐dependent pattern of control of hypoglossal motoneurones during REM sleep is similar to that reported for motoneurones in other motor nuclei at all levels of the neuraxis. The decrease in the evoked response of hypoglossal motoneurones, which reflects a significant increase in the discharge threshold of individual motoneurones, results in atonia of the lingual and related muscles during REM sleep.     

Sleep–wakefulness in alcohol preferring and non-preferring rats following binge alcohol administration

The alcohol-preferring (P) rat is a valid animal model of alcoholism. However, the effect of alcohol on sleep in P or alcohol non-preferring (NP) rats is unknown. Since alcohol consumption has tremendous impact on sleep, the present study compared the effects of binge alcohol administration on sleep–wakefulness in P and NP rats. Using standard surgical procedures, the P and NP rats were bilaterally implanted with sleep recording electrodes. Following post-operative recovery and habituation, pre-ethanol (baseline) sleep–wakefulness was electrographically recorded for 48 h. Subsequently, ethanol was administered beginning with a priming dose of 5 g/Kg followed by two doses of 2 g/Kg every 8 h on the first day and three doses of 3 g/Kg/8 h on the second day. On the following day (post-ethanol), undisturbed sleep–wakefulness was electrographically recorded for 24 h. Our initial results suggest that, during baseline conditions, the time spent in each of the three behavioral states: wakefulness, non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep and REM sleep, was comparable between P and NP rats. However, the P rats were more susceptible to changes in sleep–wakefulness following 2 days of binge ethanol treatment. As compared to NP rats, the P rats displayed insomnia like symptoms including a significant reduction in the amount of time spent in NREM sleep coupled with a significant increase in wakefulness on post-ethanol day. Subsequent analysis revealed that binge ethanol induced increased wakefulness and reduced NREM sleep in P rats occurred mainly in the dark period. This is the first study that: (1) demonstrates spontaneous sleep–wake profile in P and NP rats, and (2) compares the effects of binge ethanol treatment on sleep in P and NP rats. Our results suggest that, as compared to NP rats, the P rats were more susceptible to sleep disruptions after binge ethanol treatment. In addition, the P rats exhibited insomnia-like symptoms observed during abstinence from alcohol in human subjects.     

The effects of sleep deprivation in humans: topographical electroencephalogram changes in non‐rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep versus REM sleep

Studies on homeostatic aspects of sleep regulation have been focussed upon non‐rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, and direct comparisons with regional changes in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep are sparse. To this end, evaluation of electroencephalogram (EEG) changes in recovery sleep after extended waking is the classical approach for increasing homeostatic need. Here, we studied a large sample of 40 healthy subjects, considering a full‐scalp EEG topography during baseline (BSL) and recovery sleep following 40 h of wakefulness (REC). In NREM sleep, the statistical maps of REC versus BSL differences revealed significant fronto‐central increases of power from 0.5 to 11 Hz and decreases from 13 to 15 Hz. In REM sleep, REC versus BSL differences pointed to significant fronto‐central increases in the 0.5–7 Hz and decreases in the 8–11 Hz bands. Moreover, the 12–15 Hz band showed a fronto‐parietal increase and that at 22–24 Hz exhibited a fronto‐central decrease. Hence, the 1–7 Hz range showed significant increases in both NREM sleep and REM sleep, with similar topography. The parallel change of NREM sleep and REM sleep EEG power is related, as confirmed by a correlational analysis, indicating that the increase in frequency of 2–7 Hz possibly subtends a state‐aspecific homeostatic response. On the contrary, sleep deprivation has opposite effects on alpha and sigma activity in both states. In particular, this analysis points to the presence of state‐specific homeostatic mechanisms for NREM sleep, limited to <2 Hz frequencies. In conclusion, REM sleep and NREM sleep seem to share some homeostatic mechanisms in response to sleep deprivation, as indicated mainly by the similar direction and topography of changes in low‐frequency activity.     

Selective 5HT2A and 5HT6 receptor antagonists promote sleep in rats

STUDY OBJECTIVES: Serotonin (5-HT) has long been implicated in the control of sleep and wakefulness. This study evaluated the hypnotic efficacy of the 5-HT6 antagonist RO4368554 (RO) and the 5-HT2A receptor antagonist MDL100907 (MDL) relative to zolpidem. DESIGN: A randomized, repeated-measures design was utilized in which Wistar rats received intraperitoneal injections of RO (1.0, 3.0, and 10 mg/kg), MDL (0.1, 1.0 and 3.0 mg/kg), zolpidem (10 mg/kg), or vehicle in the middle of the dark (active) period. Electroencephalogram, electromyogram, body temperature (Tb) and locomotor activity were analyzed for 6 hours after injection. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: RO, MDL, and zolpidem all produced significant increases in sleep and decreases in waking, compared with vehicle control. All 3 doses of MDL produced more consolidated sleep, increased non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM) sleep, and increased electroencephalographic delta power during NREM sleep. The highest dose of RO (10.0 mg/kg) produced significant increases in sleep and decreases in waking during hour 2 following dosing. These increases in sleep duration were associated with greater delta power during NREM sleep. ZO Zolpidem induced sleep with the shortest latency and significantly increased NREM sleep and delta power but also suppressed rapid eye movement sleep sleep; in contrast, neither RO nor MDL affected rapid eye movement sleep. Whereas RO did not affect Tb, both zolpidem and MDL reduced Tb relative to vehicle-injected controls. CONCLUSIONS: These results support a role for 5-HT2A receptor modulation in NREM sleep and suggest a previously unrecognized role for 5-HT6 receptors in sleep-wake regulation.     

Sleep state distribution of obstructive events in children: is obstructive sleep apnoea really a rapid eye movement sleep‐related condition?

Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) in children is commonly considered to occur predominantly in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, but clinical experience suggests that this is not universally the case. We hypothesized that there would be a subgroup of children with OSA who have non‐REM (NREM) predominance of obstructive events and that these children share certain clinical characteristics. Thus, we aimed to compare the obstructive apnoea–hypopnoea index (OAHI) in REM versus NREM sleep and to assess factors influencing the distribution of events by sleep state. Polysomnography (PSG) recordings of 102 children aged 0–18 years with moderate to severe OSA (OAHI ≥5 h^?1) were reviewed. OAHI was calculated separately for REM and NREM sleep. A REM predominance index (RPI) was determined using log transformation [RPI = log (REM OAHI + 0.5) ? log (NREM OAHI + 0.5)] and compared with possible influencing factors using multiple linear regression. Analysis showed that obstructive events were more common in REM sleep (median REM OAHI 21.4 h^?1, median NREM OAHI 8.3 h^?1, P < 0.001). Mean RPI was significantly greater than zero (P = 0.003). However, a substantial minority of children (30.4%) had a higher NREM than REM OAHI. The factors that were related significantly to NREM predominance were older age (P = 0.02), higher arousal index (P < 0.001) and higher SpO₂ nadir (P < 0.001). Our findings demonstrate that while OSA is a REM sleep‐related problem in the majority of children, there is a significant subset of children with NREM predominance of obstructive events. This finding highlights the importance of considering sleep state distribution of events in studies of the pathophysiology and outcomes of OSA in childhood.