Fhit modulates the DNA damage checkpoint response

In preneoplastic lesions, the DNA damage checkpoint is induced and loss of heterozygosity at the FRA3B/FHIT common chromosome fragile region precedes or is coincident with activation of the checkpoint response in these early stages. Introduction of exogenous Fhit into cells in vitro led to modulation of expression of checkpoint proteins Hus1 and Chk1 at mid-S checkpoint, a modulation that led to induction of apoptosis in esophageal cancer cells but not in noncancerous primary cultures. Mutation of the conserved Fhit tyrosine 114 resulted in failure of this function, confirming the importance of this residue. The results suggest that the DNA damage-susceptible FRA3B/FHIT chromosome fragile region, paradoxically, encodes a protein that is necessary for protecting cells from accumulation of DNA damage through its role in modulation of checkpoint proteins, and inactivation of Fhit contributes to accumulation of abnormal checkpoint phenotypes in cancer development.     

Restoration of fragile histidine triad expression restores Chk2 activity in response to ionizing radiation in oral squamous cell carcinoma cells

Early in tumorigenesis, a DNA damage-response network is activated in preneoplastic cells that delays or prevents cancer. Activation of the Chk2 G₂/M checkpoint kinase and loss of fragile histidine triad (Fhit) tumor suppressor expression increase cellular susceptibility to DNA-damaging 'oncogenic' stressors, particularly in precursor or precancerous lesions. To understand the mechanism of oral carcinogenesis, we assessed the association between phosphorylated Chk2 (pChk2) and Fhit expression in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Loss of Fhit expression was an early event during oral carcinogenesis, whereas a decrease in the number of pChk2-positive cells was associated with tumor progression. Although tyrosine 114 is known to be essential to Fhit's tumor-suppressing activity, both wild-type and tyrosine 114 mutant Fhit increased the population of subG₁ DNA-containing HSC-3 OSCC cells with elevated pChk2 levels. In particular, when cells were exposed to ionizing radiation, pChk2 levels were upregulated dramatically, as were those of its downstream target Cdc25C. Knockdown of Fhit with FHIT small interfering RNA diminished the ionizing radiation-induced Chk2 phosphorylation in HEK293 cells. Furthermore, Fhit -deficient mice demonstrated a decrease in the number of pChk2-positive cells not only in dysplastic lesions but also in N -nitrosobenzylamine-induced papilloma of the forestomach, suggesting that lack of Fhit expression and the resultant defects of the ataxia telangiectasia mutated–Chk2 pathway can cause a difference in the incidence of N -nitrosobenzylamine-induced forestomach lesions. These findings suggest that Fhit plays a key role in the regulation of the ataxia telangiectasia mutated–Chk2 DNA damage response during oral carcinogenesis. ( Cancer Sci 2008; 99: 524–530)     

Fragile gene product, Fhit, in oxidative and replicative stress responses

Though the fragile histidine triad gene product, Fhit, was discovered and characterized as a tumor suppressor 13 years ago, its sequence, structure, and cellular location did not provide clues to aid discovery of its mechanisms of suppression. Recently, using chemical cross-linkers and immunoprecipitation, a Fhit protein complex was identified that includes Hsp60 and Hsp10 which may mediate Fhit stability and mitochondrial localization, where Fhit binds and stabilizes ferredoxin reductase (Fdxr); when Fdxr is overexpressed, it can lead to production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that induce apoptosis. Cancer cells expressing endogenous or exogenous Fhit, when exposed to H₂O₂, an oxidative stress, produce higher levels of apoptosis-inducing ROS than matched, Fhit-negative cells; the Fhit-negative cancer cells survive, carrying DNA damage. In addition to this mitochondrial function, Fhit-overexpression in cancer cells exposed to replicative stress-inducing agents leads to enhanced caspase 3 activation and apoptosis, due to defective Chk1 activation. Thus, damage to the fragile FHIT locus leads to reduced expression of Fhit protein, and makes a two-pronged contribution to development of preneoplastic clonal expansion: (1) absence or reduction of Fhit leads to reduced expression of Fdxr and reduced ROS-induced apoptosis; (2) cells that escape ROS- or replicative stress-induced apoptosis can carry misrepaired DNA damage. The aberrant DNA damage response checkpoint in Fhit-deficient preneoplasias and cancers may make these lesions targets for inhibitors of proteins such as Parp1 and Chk1 with important roles in checkpoint responses, as observed for BRCA1-deficient cancer cells that also exhibit DNA damage repair deficiencies. ( Cancer Sci 2009; 100: 1145–1150)     

Altered expression of Fhit in carcinoma and precarcinomatous lesions of the esophagus

The FHIT gene, located at chromosome 3p14.2, is a tumor suppressor gene often involved in tumors resulting from exposure to environmental carcinogens. We studied 46 pairs of esophageal primary tumors and corresponding normal squamous mucosa specimens by molecular genetic and immunohistochemical methods to investigate the role of the FHIT gene in esophageal carcinoma. In addition, we studied several different types of lesions, such as carcinoma in situ or dysplasia by immunohistochemistry. Loss of heterozygosity at or around the FHIT gene was observed in 35 (76%) primary tumors. Immunohistochemical detection of Fhit protein in the primary tumors demonstrated that 14 (30%) were positive and 32 (70%) were negative. We observed concordance between loss of Fhit protein and loss of heterozygosity and between loss of Fhit protein and RNA abnormalities. Because the FHIT/FRA3B locus is susceptible to damage by environmental carcinogens, we investigated the correlation between Fhit expression and smoking or alcohol habits. In this relatively small study, the patients who were both heavy users of tobacco and alcohol showed a significantly higher frequency of loss of Fhit expression than those who were light users. Noncarcinomatous squamous epithelium showed positive Fhit reactivity in most cases; however, five showed negative Fhit reactivity. Interestingly, all of these five patients had habits of heavy use of tobacco and alcohol. Eight of 12 carcinomas in situ, 2 of 4 severe dysplasias, 4 of 8 moderate dysplasias, and 3 of 9 mild dysplastic lesions showed negative Fhit reactivity. These findings indicated that loss of Fhit expression may be an early event in the development of human esophageal carcinoma and may occur even in normal-appearing squamous epithelium in some patients heavily exposed to environmental carcinogens.     

Aberrant expression of DNA damage response proteins is associated with breast cancer subtype and clinical features

Landmark studies of the status of DNA damage checkpoints and associated repair functions in preneoplastic and neoplastic cells has focused attention on importance of these pathways in cancer development, and inhibitors of repair pathways are in clinical trials for treatment of triple negative breast cancer. Cancer heterogeneity suggests that specific cancer subtypes will have distinct mechanisms of DNA damage survival, dependent on biological context. In this study, status of DNA damage response (DDR)-associated proteins was examined in breast cancer subtypes in association with clinical features; 479 breast cancers were examined for expression of DDR proteins γH2AX, BRCA1, pChk2, and p53, DNA damage-sensitive tumor suppressors Fhit and Wwox, and Wwox-interacting proteins Ap2α, Ap2γ, ErbB4, and correlations among proteins, tumor subtypes, and clinical features were assessed. In a multivariable model, triple negative cancers showed significantly reduced Fhit and Wwox, increased p53 and Ap2γ protein expression, and were significantly more likely than other subtype tumors to exhibit aberrant expression of two or more DDR-associated proteins. Disease-free survival was associated with subtype, Fhit and membrane ErbB4 expression level and aberrant expression of multiple DDR-associated proteins. These results suggest that definition of specific DNA repair and checkpoint defects in subgroups of triple negative cancer might identify new treatment targets. Expression of Wwox and its interactor, ErbB4, was highly significantly reduced in metastatic tissues vs. matched primary tissues, suggesting that Wwox signal pathway loss contributes to lymph node metastasis, perhaps by allowing survival of tumor cells that have detached from basement membranes, as proposed for the role of Wwox in ovarian cancer spread.     

非小细胞肺癌FHIT基因蛋白表达缺失及与突变型p53表达相关性

[目的]了解非小细胞肺癌组织(NSCLC)中脆性组氨酸三联体(FHIT)基因蛋白(Fhit)表达缺失及其与突变型p53基因蛋白(p53)表达的相关性.[方法]应用免疫组织化学方法了解NSCLC组织中Fhit及p53的表达.[结果]62.2%(56/90)的NSCLC组织显示Fhit表达缺失,同时48.9%(44/90)有突变型p53表达;两者的异常表达在非鳞组中明显相关(P＜0.001),而在鳞癌组中无相关性(P=0.079);另外,两者的异常表达在非吸烟组中明显相关(P=0.006),而在吸烟组中无相关性(P=0.113).[结论]Fhit表达缺失和突变型p53表达是NSCLC中常见事件;而且两者在non-SqCC和非吸烟的肺癌者中有明显的相关性.     

Chk1 is required to maintain claspin stability

Claspin is a Chk1-interacting protein that participates in the DNA replication checkpoint. Expression of Claspin fluctuates in a cell cycle-dependent manner, but the mechanisms involved in the regulation of Claspin protein levels have not been explored. In this study, we show that Claspin expression is downregulated by the proteasome-mediated degradation pathway and that Chk1 is required to maintain Claspin stability. Downregulation of Chk1 expression by siRNA or inhibition of Chk1 activity by UCN01 decreases Claspin levels in cells. Conversely, overexpression of Chk1 increases Claspin levels. These data indicate a role of Chk1 in regulating Claspin stability in the cell. Since Claspin has also been shown to participate in Chk1 activation following DNA damage, we further explored the exact role of Claspin during Chk1 activation following replication stress. We observed that while Rad17 is required for early Chk1 activation after hydroxyurea treatment, Claspin is only required to sustain Chk1 activation. Based on these findings, we propose that Claspin functions at late stages of Chk1 activation following DNA damage. Once Chk1 is activated, it stabilizes Claspin, which in turn helps to maintain Chk1 activation during replication stress. In summary, these data indicate that the interaction between Claspin and Chk1 is complex. These proteins regulate each other and thus ensure the proper cell cycle progression and replication checkpoint control.     

EGFRvIII expression and PTEN loss synergistically induce chromosomal instability and glial tumors

Glioblastomas often show activation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and loss of PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10) tumor suppressor, but it is not known if these two genetic lesions act together to transform cells. To answer this question, we infected PTEN-/- neural precursor cells with a retrovirus encoding EGFRvIII, which is a constitutively activated receptor. EGFRvIII PTEN-/- cells formed highly mitotic tumors with nuclear pleomorphism, necrotic areas, and glioblastoma markers. The transformed cells showed increased cell proliferation, centrosome amplification, colony formation in soft agar, self-renewal, expression of the stem cell marker CD133, and resistance to oxidative stress and ionizing radiation. The RAS/mitogen-activated protein kinase (ERK) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt) pathways were activated, and checkpoint kinase 1 (Chk1), the DNA damage regulator, was phosphorylated at S280 by Akt, suppressing Chk1 phosphorylation at S345 in response to ionizing irradiation. The PTEN-/- cells showed low levels of DNA damage in the absence of irradiation, which was increased by EGFRvIII expression. Finally, secondary changes occurred during tumor growth in mice. Cells from these tumors showed decreased tumor latencies and additional chromosomal aberrations. Most of these tumor lines showed translocations of mouse chromosome 15. Intracranial injections of one of these lines led to invasive, glial fibrillary acidic protein-positive, nestin-positive tumors. These results provide a molecular basis for the occurrence of these two genetic lesions in brain tumors and point to a role in induction of genomic instability.     

Autoregulatory mechanisms of phosphorylation of checkpoint kinase 1

Checkpoint kinase 1 (Chk1), a serine/threonine protein kinase, is centrally involved in cell-cycle checkpoints and cellular response to DNA damage. Phosphorylation of Chk1 at 2 Ser/Gln (SQ) sites, Ser-317 and Ser-345, by the upstream kinase ATR is critical for checkpoint activation. However, the precise molecular mechanisms controlling Chk1 phosphorylation and subsequent checkpoint activation are not well understood. Here, we report unique autoregulatory mechanisms that control protein phosphorylation of human Chk1, as well as checkpoint activation and cell viability. Phosphorylation of Ser-317 is required, but not sufficient, for maximal phosphorylation at Ser-345. The N-terminal kinase domain of Chk1 prevents Chk1 phosphorylation at the C-terminus by ATR in the absence of DNA damage. Loss of the inhibitory effect imposed by the N-terminus causes constitutive phosphorylation of Chk1 by ATR under normal growth conditions, which in turn triggers artificial checkpoints that suppress the S-phase progression. Furthermore, two point mutations were identified that rendered Chk1 constitutively active, and expression of the constitutively active mutant form of Chk1 inhibited cancer cell proliferation. Our findings therefore reveal unique regulatory mechanisms of Chk1 phosphorylation and suggest that expression of constitutively active Chk1 may represent a novel strategy to suppress tumor growth. Cancer Res; 72(15); 3786-94. ?2012 AACR.     

Increasing cisplatin sensitivity by schedule-dependent inhibition of AKT and Chk1

The effectiveness of DNA damaging chemotherapy drugs can be limited by activation of survival signaling pathways and cell cycle checkpoints that allow DNA repair. Targeting survival pathways and inhibiting cell cycle checkpoints may increase chemotherapy-induced cancer cell killing. AKT and Chk1 are survival and cell cycle checkpoint kinases, respectively, that can be activated by DNA damage. Cisplatin (CP) is a standard chemotherapy agent for osteosarcoma (OS). CP induced apoptosis to varying extents and activated AKT and Chk1 in multiple p53 wild-type and p53-null OS cell lines. A Chk1 inhibitor increased CP-induced apoptosis in all OS cell lines regardless of p53 status. In contrast, an AKT inhibitor increased CP-induced apoptosis only in p53 wild-type OS cells, but not p53 nulll cells. The increased apoptosis in p53 wild-type cells was coincident with decreased p53 protein levels, but increased expression of p53-responsive apoptotic genes Noxa and PUMA. Further studies revealed the inability of AKT inhibitor to CP-sensitize p53-null OS cells resulted from 2 things: 1) AKT inhibition stabilized/maintained p27 levels in CP-treated cells, which then mediated a protective G1-phase cell cycle arrest, 2) AKT inhibition increased the levels of activated Chk1. Finally, schedule dependent inhibition of AKT and Chk1 evaded the protective G1 arrest mediated by p27 and maximized CP-induced OS cell killing. These data demonstrate AKT and Chk1 activation promote survival in CP-treated OS cells, and that strategic, scheduled targeting of AKT and Chk1 can maximize OS cell killing by CP.     

Dual induction of apoptosis and senescence in cancer cells by Chk2 activation: checkpoint activation as a strategy against cancer

The human checkpoint kinase 2 (Chk2) plays a central role in regulation of the cellular response to DNA damage, resulting in cell cycle arrest, DNA repair, or apoptosis depending on severity of DNA damage and the cellular context. Chk2 inhibitors are being developed as sensitizers for chemotherapeutic agents. In contrast, here we report that direct activation of Chk2 alone (without chemotherapeutic agents) led to potent inhibition of cancer cell proliferation. In the absence of de novo DNA damage, checkpoint activation was achieved by increased Chk2 expression, as evidenced by its phosphorylation at Thr68, resulting in senescence and apoptosis of cancer cells (DLD1 and HeLa). The Chk2-induced apoptosis was p53 independent and was mediated by caspase activation triggered by loss of mitochondrial potential. The Chk2-induced senescence was also p53 independent and was associated with induction of p21. These results suggest that direct activation of checkpoint kinases may be a novel approach for cancer therapy.     

Roles of Chk1 in cell biology and cancer therapy

The evolutionally conserved DNA damage response (DDR) and cell cycle checkpoints preserve genome integrity. Central to these genome surveillance pathways is a protein kinase, Chk1. DNA damage induces activation of Chk1, which then transduces the checkpoint signal and facilitates cell cycle arrest and DNA damage repair. Significant progress has been made recently toward our understanding of Chk1 regulation and its implications in cancer etiology and therapy. Specifically, a model that involves both spatiotemporal and conformational changes of proteins has been proposed for Chk1 activation. Further, emerging evidence suggests that Chk1 does not appear to be a tumor suppressor; instead, it promotes tumor growth and may contribute to anticancer therapy resistance. Recent data from our laboratory suggest that activating, but not inhibiting, Chk1 in the absence of chemotherapy might represent an innovative approach to suppress tumor growth. These findings suggest unique regulation of Chk1 in cell biology and cancer etiology, pointing to novel strategies for targeting Chk1 in cancer therapy.     

Chk1/2和Plk1蛋白在宫颈良恶性病变组织中的表达及其意义

背景与目的：Chk1/2（checkpoint kinase 1/2）和Plk1（polo-like kinase 1）是各细胞周期检测点启动DNA损伤修复的主要激酶.本研究主要探讨3种激酶蛋白在宫颈良恶性病变中的表达差异、与宫颈癌临床病理特征的关系及3种激酶在宫颈癌组织中表达之间的相互关系.方法：应用免疫组化SP法检测43例宫颈癌组织和20例慢性宫颈炎性组织中Chk1、Chk2和Plk1蛋白的表达情况.结果：Chk1、Chk2和Plk1蛋白在宫颈癌患者中的阳性率分别为76.7%、60.5%和32.6%,在慢性宫颈炎患者中的阳性率分别为30.0%、35.0%和0;Chkl和Plk1蛋白在宫颈癌组织中的表达显著高于慢性宫颈炎组织（P＜0.01）,而Chk2的表达差异无显著性（P＞0.05）.Chk1、Chk2和Plk1蛋白的表达在不同年龄、病理类型和临床分期的宫颈癌患者中差异无显著性（P＞0.05）;但Chk1和Plkl的表达在不同分化程度的宫颈癌患者中差异有显著性（P＜0.05）.Spearman等级相关分析,在43例宫颈癌患者中,Chk1与Chk2的表达呈正相关（r=0.492,P=0.001）.结论：Chk1和Plk1可能成为比较理想的宫颈癌治疗靶点.     

Treatment with the Chk1 inhibitor Gö6976 enhances cisplatin cytotoxicity in SCLC cells

Acquired chemoresistance is a major obstacle in successful treatment of small cell lung cancer (SCLC). DNA damage responses can potentially contribute to resistance by halting the cell cycle following exposure to therapeutic agents, thereby facilitating repair of drug-induced lesions and protecting tumour cells from death. The Chk1 protein kinase is a key regulator in this response. We analysed the status of cell cycle checkpoint proteins and the effects of the Chk1 inhibitor G?6976 on cisplatin toxicity in SCLC cell lines. IC50s for cisplatin were determined using the MTT assay in six SCLC cell lines. Effects on cell cycle distribution and apoptosis were determined by flow cytometry and caspase 3 activation in the presence or absence of the Chk1 inhibitor G?6976. The activation of checkpoint proteins was determined by Western blotting. Cell lines were divided into chemosensitive and chemoresistant groups on the basis of our results. While checkpoint responses were detected in these cell lines through Western blotting, some of these responses were delayed or weaker than those seen in other cell types in response to DNA damage and replication stress. G?6976 significantly (p<0.05) enhanced the levels of apoptosis seen in response to a clinically relevant dose of cisplatin (<6 μM) and decreased drug-induced G2 arrest in chemosensitive cells. Our data suggest a role for Chk1 in chemoresistance of SCLC cells and a potential approach to improve initial response of SCLC to cisplatin therapy.     

Increased expression of CHK2 in human gastric carcinomas harboring p53 mutations

Human Chk1 and Chk2 are DNA damage-activated protein kinases that function as downstream mediators of ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM), which is involved in G(2)/M cell cycle arrest. To clarify the relation between the expression of Chk1/Chk2 and p53 gene status in human gastric carcinomas, we examined expression of Chk1, Chk2 and p53 proteins in 87 gastric carcinomas by Western blotting and immunohistochemistry. We found a significant correlation between the expression levels of Chk1 and p53 proteins in gastric carcinomas (p = 0.016). Significant statistical association was also observed between levels of Chk2 and p53 proteins (p = 0.00024). To clarify the genetic alterations of p53 in gastric carcinomas, we performed PCR-SSCP analysis on 47 gastric carcinomas. Although we found that 5 of 7 (71%) gastric cancers expressed elevated levels of Chk1 had p53 mutation, there was not a statistically significant correlation between expression of Chk1 and genetic status of p53. We also found that 7 of 11 (78%) gastric carcinomas expressed elevated levels of Chk2 had p53 mutation, and this correlation was significant (p = 0.0157). We used a highly quantitative 5' nuclease fluorogenic RT-PCR method (TaqMan) to analyze the expression of Chk2 mRNA in 22 gastric carcinomas. Chk2 mRNA expression was higher in gastric carcinomas with p53 mutations compared to those harboring wild-type p53. A significant association was recognized between the expression of Chk2 mRNA and p53 mutational status (p = 0.031). Our findings support the hypothesis that expression of Chk2 protein is increased in gastric carcinomas with mutant p53. Chk1 and Chk2 may play important roles in the checkpoint function in human gastric carcinomas harboring p53 mutation when their functions are preserved to prevent cell cycle progression.     

Gambogic acid triggers DNA damage signaling that induces p53/p21 activation through the ATR-Chk1 pathway

Gambogic acid (GA) has been wildly studied to show potent anti-tumor effects in vivo and in vitro. We have confirmed that GA stabilized and activated p53 through down-regulating the expression of MDM2 in variety of cancer cell lines. However, GA-induced p53 activation could be partially reversed by caffeine, a PI3k inhibitor. Therefore, questions of whether GA induces post-translational modifications of p53 and subsequent activation of p53; and if that is the case, which upstream signaling pathway(s) is (are) responsible for that are proposed. Here, the relationship between p53 activation and its post-translational modifications was investigated in the human cancer cell lines HepG2 and A549 in response to GA or adriamycin treatment. GA induces p53 phosphorylation at sites Ser15 and Ser20 in a concentration- or time-dependent way, which was a direct result of DNA damage, as γ-HA2X foci and ‘comet’ DNA fragments were detected. GA induces p53 phosphorylation through activation of an ATM- and Rad3-related pathway, and GA-induced phosphorylation of Chk1 is also involved. Upon treatment with GA, ATR activation is clearly associated with p53 phosphorylation, as well as activation of its target gene p21^Waf/CIP1. Furthermore, we found the dephosphorylation of Cdk1 at Thr161 induced by GA was abrogated, followed by a remarkable disruption of G2/M arrest when the cells were pre-incubated with caffeine. Interestingly, the sensitivity to caffeine enhanced the cytotoxicity of GA as well. Taken together, these data showed an important role of the DNA damage response mediated by ATR-Chk1 in p53/p21^Waf/CIP1 activation and downstream G2/M arrest during GA treatment.     

下调Chk1和Chk2基因促进射线照射后HeLa细胞凋亡

目的 探讨下调Chk1和Chk2基因对HeLa细胞射线照射后细胞周期和凋亡的影响及其作用机制.方法 应用流式细胞仪检测不同剂量60Co照射引起的HeLa细胞周期和凋亡的动力学变化,以激光共聚焦显微镜和Western blot法检测转染Chk1和Chk2正义寡核苷酸(sODN)和反义寡核苷酸(AsODN)对Chk1和Chk2蛋白表达的影响,以AnnexinV-PI法、凋亡细胞的周期特异性检测法及透射电镜观察单独或联合转染Chk1和Chk2反义寡核苷酸对射线照射后HeLa细胞凋亡的影响.结果 不同剂量的60Co照射可引起Hela细胞小同程度的G2/M期阻滞,15 Gy的60Co照射48 h后,G2/M期细胞可达75.53%±3.72%.当细胞周期阻滞解除后,细胞凋亡明显增加.转染Chk1 AsODN组的早期凋亡、晚期凋亡和死亡细胞共有94.42%±4.78%,明显高于转染Chk1 sODN组(44.35%±2.08%,P<0.0001);转染Chk2 AsODN组的凋亡细胞共有93.08%±5.24%,明显高于转染Chk2 sODN组(48.98%±3.35%,P<0.0001);而共转染Chk1和Chk2 AsODN组的凋亡细胞共有94.26%±4.92%,明显高于共转染Chk1和Chk2 sODN组(42.46%±2.56%,P<0.0001);共转染Chk1和Chk2AsODN组与仅转染Chk1 AsODN或Chk2 AsODN组比较,差异无统计学意义(P>0.05).凋亡细胞的周期特异性检测结果显示,转染Chk1和Chk2 sODN引起的凋亡主要来自于G1期细胞,而转染Chk1 AsODN或Chk2 AsODN后,G1期、S期、G2/M期的凋亡细胞均较对应sODN转染组明显增加,尤其共转染Chk1和Chk2 AsODN组更为显著.结论 射线照射激活细胞周期检测点信号传导通路引起细胞自我保护,是临床上产生放疗抵抗的主要原因,而阻断该信号通路的关键激酶Chk1或Chk2,可显著增强细胞的放射敏感性,其机制在于改变了凋亡细胞的周期特异性,凋亡细胞可以来自G1、S、G2/M各周期的细胞.     

The expression of Fhit protein is related inversely to disease progression in patients with breast carcinoma

BACKGROUND: The FHIT gene, located at human chromosome 3p14.2, frequently is deleted in a number of human tumors, including breast carcinoma. Its protein product (Fhit) is presumed to have tumor suppressor function. Loss of expression of a tumor suppressor gene is an important step in tumor progression from premalignant, to in situ, to invasive carcinoma. METHODS: In the current study, Fhit expression was examined in invasive carcinomas and in epithelial lesions representing stages of carcinoma progression in 50 mastectomy specimens using immunohistochemical methods. RESULTS: Normal ductal and lobular epithelium consistently and strongly expressed Fhit. A complete loss of or a significant reduction in Fhit expression was observed in 72% of breast carcinomas. A statistically significant, negative correlation in Fhit expression among the stages of disease progression in Fhit negative breast carcinomas was observed (normal epithelium > hyperplasia > atypical hyperplasia and carcinoma in situ > invasive carcinoma), whereas no loss of Fhit expression in precursor lesions was observed in Fhit positive tumors. CONCLUSIONS: These observations are consistent with the observed role of FHIT as a tumor suppressor gene in the pathogenesis of specific subsets of carcinomas.