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1.
The longitudiual relaxation time T1 of native cartilage is frequently assumed to be constant. To redress this, the spatial variation of T1 in unenhanced healthy human knee cartilage in different compartments and cartilage layers was investigated. Knees of 25 volunteers were examined on a 1.5 T MRI system. A three-dimensional gradient-echo sequence with a variable flip angle, in combination with parallel imaging, was used for rapid T1 mapping of the whole knee. Regions of interest (ROIs) were defined in five different cartilage segments (medial and lateral femoral cartilage, medial and lateral tibial cartilage and patellar cartilage). Pooled histograms and averaged profiles across the cartilage thickness were generated. The mean values were compared for global variance using the Kruskal–Wallis test and pairwise using the Mann–Whitney U-test. Mean T1 decreased from 900–1100 ms in superficial cartilage to 400–500 ms in deep cartilage. The averaged T1 value of the medial femoral cartilage was 702±68 ms, of the lateral femoral cartilage 630±75 ms, of the medial tibial cartilage 700±87 ms, of the lateral tibial cartilage 594±74 ms and of the patellar cartilage 666±78 ms. There were significant differences between the medial and lateral compartment (p<0.01). In each cartilage segment, T1 decreased considerably from superficial to deep cartilage. Only small variations of T1 between different cartilage segments were found but with a significant difference between the medial and lateral compartments.MRI relaxation parameters are used to evaluate cartilage degradation. T2 has been investigated extensively and has been demonstrated to vary with water and collagen content and with collagen orientation in the different cartilage layers [1–8].The quantification of the longitudiual relaxation time T1 of native cartilage has received less attention. In experimental studies, native T1 has been demonstrated to correlate with mechanical properties [9] and to depend upon the macromolecular structure of cartilage [10]. However, it is frequently assumed to be constant across cartilage [11–13]. A few studies have investigated the mean values of a single compartment (10, 14–19] but have not investigated the depth-dependent variation. To our knowledge, no study has systematically compared T1 of unenhanced human knee cartilage in different cartilage layers and in different cartilage compartments in healthy volunteers.
Open in a separate windowData are presented as the mean ± standard deviation. VFA, variable flip angle; GE, gradient echo; IR, inversion-recovery; IR-TSE, inversion-recovery turbo spin-echo; 3D, three-dimensional.*Mean value averaged over the femorotibial compartment.Usually, inversion-recovery (IR) sequences have been used to measure several points in the T1 relaxation curve. Although this technique provides ideal measurements of T1, it is not viable in most studies that require T1 values of a large volume within a reasonable time. Three-dimensional (3D) T1 mapping techniques were applied for this purpose [17, 20–22].The purpose of this study was to investigate the spatial variation of native cartilage T1 in different compartments and different cartilage layers in healthy human knee joints using a rapid 3D gradient-echo (GE) sequence with variable flip angle. 相似文献
Table 1
T1 of healthy human articular cartilage in the knee jointSequence | T1 (ms) | |||||
Field strength | Lateral femoral | Medial femoral | Lateral tibial | Medial tibial | Patellar | |
Van Breuseghem et al [16] | Combined T1–T2 | 449±34* | – | |||
IR-TSE | ||||||
1.5 T | ||||||
Tiderius et al [18] | Turbo-IR | 952±86 | 952±86 | – | – | – |
1.5 T | ||||||
Williams et al [14] | Turbo-IR | – | – | – | ||
1.5 T | 916±102 | 819±86 | ||||
3.0 T | 1146±133 | 1167±79 | ||||
Gold et al [19] | Look-Locker | – | – | – | – | |
1.5 T | 1066±155 | |||||
3.0 T | 1240±107 | |||||
Wang et al [15] | 3D GE with VFA | 1004±72* | 1193±108 | |||
3.0 T | ||||||
Trattnig et al [17] | 3D GE with VFA | 1013±89 | – | – | – | – |
3.0 T |
2.
M Oliver D McConnell M Romani A McAllister A Pearce A Andronowski X Wang K Leszczynski 《The British journal of radiology》2012,85(1020):1539-1545
3.
R Girometti G Brondani L Cereser G Como M Del Pin M Bazzocchi C Zuiani 《The British journal of radiology》2010,83(988):351-361
Post-cholecystectomy syndrome (PCS) is defined as a complex of heterogeneous symptoms, consisting of upper abdominal pain and dyspepsia, which recur and/or persist after cholecystectomy. Nevertheless, this term is inaccurate, as it encompasses biliary and non-biliary disorders, possibly unrelated to cholecystectomy. Biliary manifestations of PCS may occur early in the post-operative period, usually because of incomplete surgery (retained calculi in the cystic duct remnant or in the common bile duct) or operative complications, such as bile duct injury and/or bile leakage. A later onset is commonly caused by inflammatory scarring strictures involving the sphincter of Oddi or the common bile duct, recurrent calculi or biliary dyskinesia. The traditional imaging approach for PCS has involved ultrasound and/or CT followed by direct cholangiography, whereas manometry of the sphincter of Oddi and biliary scintigraphy have been reserved for cases of biliary dyskinesia. Because of its capability to provide non-invasive high-quality visualisation of the biliary tract, magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) has been advocated as a reliable imaging tool for assessing patients with suspected PCS and for guiding management decisions. This paper illustrates the rationale for using MRCP, together with the main MRCP biliary findings and diagnostic pitfalls.Post-cholecystectomy syndrome (PCS) consists of a group of abdominal symptoms that recur and/or persist after cholecystectomy [1, 2]. It is defined as early if occurring in the post-operative period and late if it manifests after months or years.Although this term is used widely, it is not completely accurate, as it includes a large number of disorders, both biliary (1, 2]. It has been reported that ∼50% of these patients suffer from organic pancreaticobiliary and/or gastrointestinal disorders, whereas the remaining patients are affected by psychosomatic or extra-intestinal diseases. Moreover, in 5% of patients who undergo laparoscopic cholecystectomy, the reason for chronic abdominal pain remains unknown [1]. Probably because of the uncertainty in nosographic definition, the reported prevalence of PCS ranges from very low [2] to 47% [1]. Symptoms include biliary or non-biliary-like abdominal pain, dyspepsia, vomiting, gastrointestinal disorders and jaundice, with or without fever and cholangitis [1, 2]. Severe symptoms are more likely to represent a complication of cholecystectomy if they occur early or to express a definite treatable cause when compared with non-specific, dyspeptic or mild symptoms. A non-biliary aetiology of PCS should be suspected if no calculi or gallbladder abnormalities are found at cholecystectomy and symptoms are similar to those suffered pre-operatively [1]. Treatment for PCS is tailored to the specific cause and includes medication, sphincterotomy, biliary stenting, percutaneous drainage of bilomas and surgical revision for severe strictures [1–4].
Open in a separate window
Open in a separate windowThe traditional imaging approach to PCS includes ultrasonography and/or CT, followed by direct cholangiography, as the gold standard [2]. Biliary scintigraphy has been advocated as a reliable non-invasive tool to evaluate sphincter of Oddi activity. Nevertheless, it has limited diagnostic accuracy compared with sphincter of Oddi manometry (SOM), which represents the gold standard for assessing functional forms of PCS [5]. Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) is a non-invasive and reliable alternative to direct cholangiography for the evaluation of the biliary tract. This has led to an increasing demand for MRCP to be used in patients with suspected PCS, despite the fact that its role in patient management has been assessed only briefly [1, 2]. The main advantages of using MRCP are its non-invasiveness and its capability to provide a road-map for interventional treatments [1–4]. Heavily T2 weighted images with a high bile duct-to-background contrast may be obtained either with a set of single breath-hold, single-shot turbo spin-echo projective thick slabs or by using a respiratory-triggered three-dimensional (3D) turbo spin-echo sequence for a detailed representation of the biliary tree, together with multiplanar reformations and volumetric reconstructions [2–4]. Alternatives to the standard MRCP techniques include the use of fat-saturated 3D spoiled gradient-echo sequences in conjunction with intravenous contrast agents excreted (to a varying degree) via the biliary system, such as mangafodipir trisodium, gadobenate dimeglumine or gadoxetic acid. Advantages over fluid-based techniques include biliary function assessment, background suppression of ascites and bowel fluid, and identification of biliary leaks following cholecystectomy, with a reported sensitivity and specificity of 86% and 83%, respectively (Figure 1) [6].Open in a separate windowFigure 1A 31-year-old female patient presenting with right upper abdominal pain 1 week after laparoscopic cholecystectomy. (a) T2 weighted projective magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography image shows an elongated hyperintense fluid collection proximal to the cystic duct stump, along with a small amount of subhepatic free fluid, which is well delineated in the axial T2 weighted single-shot fast spin-echo image. (b) An aberrant right intrahepatic bile duct is visible (arrow in (a)). (c) Coronal and (d) axially reformatted T1 weighted fat saturated three-dimensional gradient echo images obtained 20 min after intravenous injection of gadoxetic acid document the passage of contrast agent from the cystic duct stump into the fluid collection and the subhepatic space, demonstrating the presence of a bile leak. (Courtesy of Celso Matos, MD, Brussels, Belgium.) 相似文献
Table 1
Main biliary causes of post-cholecystectomy syndrome (PCS) related to cholecystectomy. (Biliary malignancies are the most frequent causes of PCS unrelated to cholecystectomy [1])Early PCS |
Retained stones in the cystic duct stump and/or common bile duct |
Bile duct injury/ligature during surgery |
Bile leakage |
Late PCS |
Recurrent stones in the common bile duct |
Bile duct strictures |
Cystic duct remnant harbouring stones and/or inflammation |
Gallbladder remnant harbouring stones and/or inflammation |
Papillary stenosis |
Biliary dyskinesia |
Table 2
Main extrabiliary causes of post-cholecystectomy syndrome (modified from [1])Gastrointestinal causes | Extra-intestinal causes |
Acute/chronic pancreatitis (and complications) | Psychiatric and/or neurological disorders |
Pancreatic tumours | Coronary artery disease |
Pancreas divisum | Intercostal neuritis |
Hepatitis | Wound neuroma |
Oesophageal diseases | Unexplained pain syndromes |
Peptic ulcer disease | |
Mesenteric ischaemia | |
Diverticulitis | |
Organic or motor intestinal disorders |
4.
Y Sone A Sobajima T Kawachi S Kohara K Kato S Naganawa 《The British journal of radiology》2014,87(1042)
Objective:
To determine the prevalence and clinical features of pathologically proven incidental cancer (IC) detected by whole-body fluorine-18 fludeoxyglucose (18F-FDG) positron emission tomography (PET)/CT, as well as the incidence of false-positive and false-negative results.Methods:
We retrospectively reviewed reports derived from 18F-FDG PET/CT images of 3079 consecutive patients with known or suspected malignancies for 3 years. Discrete focal uptake indicating IC was identified from reports as well as pathological or clinical diagnoses, and the clinical courses were investigated. The false-positive result was defined as uptake indicating IC but not pathologically confirmed as malignant during follow-up. The false-negative result was defined as pathologically proven IC detected by another modality at initial clinical work-up or diagnosed during the follow-up period.Results:
We found 18F-FDG uptake indicating IC in 6.7% of all patients, and IC was pathologically proven in 2.2% of all patients. The most common sites were the colon, lung and stomach. The median survival duration of patients with IC was 42 months. The results were false positive in 4.5% of all patients, and the results were false negative in 2.3% of all patients.Conclusion:
18F-FDG PET/CT is a valuable tool for detecting IC. The rates of false-positive and false-negative results are within acceptable range.Advances in knowledge:
This is the first report to describe the survival of patients with IC, and the detailed features of false-negative results at actual clinical settings.Integrated whole-body positron emission tomography (PET)/CT using the glucose analogue fluorine-18 fludeoxyglucose (18F-FDG) is an established modality for oncologic imaging. Combined metabolic and morphological images yielded by 18F-FDG PET/CT can provide accurate information on the staging, restaging and therapeutic monitoring of many common cancers.1 Furthermore, 18F-FDG PET and PET/CT have the potential for cancer screening. Owing to the non-specific nature of 18F-FDG uptake, a wide range of malignant tumours can be visualized as incidental foci of hypermetabolism. For instance, new malignant tumours have been detected in asymptomatic individuals,2 patients with head and neck cancer,3 oesophageal cancer4 and malignant lymphoma.5 Incidental focal 18F-FDG uptake within the gastrointestinal tract frequently represents malignant and pre-malignant tumours.6,7 The detection of incidental cancer (IC) significantly impacts clinical oncological practice. Namely, the detection of a primary cancer can lead a patient to a new treatment, and the detection of a second primary cancer can lead a patient to a more suitable treatment.IC has been detected by 18F-FDG PET or PET/CT in the past decade.8–15 8–13 The detection rate of IC ranges from 0.9% to 4.4%,8–15 and a few reports have described a wider range (0.1–4.4%) of false-negative findings.13–15 However, the survival of patients with IC has not been detailed. Differences in detection rates and other findings arise owing to many factors, including country, age, symptomatic or asymptomatic individuals, 18F-FDG PET or PET/CT, judgment criteria, method and period of follow-up.Table 1.
Previous studies evaluating detection rate of incidental cancer (IC)Author | Study design | Patients (n)/mean age (years) | Modality | Rate of uptake indicating IC (%) | Rate of IC detected by PET or PET/CT (%) | Three most common sites of IC | Rate of PET or PET/CT negative IC (%) | Survival data |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Agress Jr and Cooper8 | P patients | 1750/NA | PET | 3.0 | 1.7a | Colon, breast and larynx | NA | NA |
Ishimori et al9 | R patients | 1912/58.9 | PET/CT | 4.1 | 1.2 | Lung, thyroid and colon | NA | NA |
Choi et al10 | P patients | 547/60.5 | PET/CT | 8.2 | 4.4 | Head and neck, lung and stomach | NA | NA |
Wang et al11 | R patients | 1727/63.0 | PET/CT | 11.5 | 0.9b | Lung, colon and breast | NA | NA |
Beatty et al12 | R patients | 2219/61.0 | PET/CT | 12.3 | 1.8 | Lung, breast and colon | NA | Nine dead (median follow-up of 22 months) |
Xu et al13 | R patients | 677/NA | PET/CT | 5.2 | 3.0 | Colon, lung and thyroid | 0.1 | NA |
Terauchi et al14 | P healthy participants | 2911/59.8 | PET | Not described | 1.0 | Colon, breast and thyroid | 4.4 | NA |
Nishizawa et al15 | P healthy participants | 1197/46.7 | PET/CT | Not described | 1.3c | Thyroid, lung and breast | 0.6 | NA |
5.
F P Junqueira C M A O Lima A C Coutinho Jr D B Parente L K Bittencourt L G P Bessa R C Domingues E Marchiori 《The British journal of radiology》2012,85(1019):1446-1456
Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a progressive disease that leads to substantial morbidity and eventual death. Pulmonary multidetector CT angiography (MDCTA), pulmonary MR angiography (MRA) and MR-derived pulmonary perfusion (MRPP) imaging are non-invasive imaging techniques for the differential diagnosis of PH. MDCTA is considered the gold standard for the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism, one of the most common causes of PH. MRA and MRPP are promising techniques that do not require the use of ionising radiation or iodinated contrast material, and can be useful for patients for whom such material cannot be used. This review compares the imaging aspects of pulmonary MRA and 64-row MDCTA in patients with chronic thromboembolic or idiopathic PH.Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is an insidious and progressive disease that leads to substantial morbidity and eventual death. PH results from a number of diseases with different physiopathologies, treatments and prognoses [1]. One of the most frequent causes of PH is chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH).The current classification of PH (2], resulted from a review of the previous classification developed at the 2003 3rd World Symposium in Venice, Italy. During the 4th World Symposium on PH, an international group of experts agreed to maintain the general philosophy and organisation of the Evian–Venice classifications. However, in response to a questionnaire regarding the previous classification, a majority (63%) of experts felt that modification of the Venice classification was required to accurately reflect information published in the past 5 years and to provide clarification in some areas [2].
Open in a separate windowPH is a clinical and haemodynamic syndrome that results in increased vascular resistance in the pulmonary circulation, usually by a combination of mechanisms involving vasoconstriction and remodelling of the small vessels [3]. Haemodynamically, it is defined as a systolic pulmonary artery pressure of >35 mmHg, or a mean pulmonary artery pressure of >25 mmHg at rest or >30 mmHg with exertion [4,5]. An increase in pulmonary vascular resistance and subsequent compensatory right ventricular (RV) hypertrophy lead to elevated pulmonary pressure, which often results in increased RV afterload and failure. The disorder is progressive, leading to right heart failure and death within a median of 2.8 years after diagnosis [6,7].The development of RV failure in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is an ominous sign with major adverse prognostic implications. Patients with severe PAH or right heart failure die usually within 1 year without treatment. In the National Institutes of Health registry, approximately 50% of deaths in patients with PAH are attributed to RV failure [6]. Numerous factors may indicate a poor prognosis in patients with PAH and secondary RV failure, including age >45 years at presentation, New York Heart Association (NYHA) Class III or IV functional classification, failure to improve to a lower NYHA class during treatment, pericardial effusion, large right atrial size, elevated right atrial pressure, septal shift during diastole, decreased pulmonary arterial capacitance (stroke volume/pulmonary arterial pulse pressure), increased N-terminal brain natriuretic peptide level and hypocapnia [8,9].Because patients with PH often present with non-specific symptoms, such as shortness of breath on minimal physical exertion, fatigue, chest pain and fainting, diagnosis often occurs late in the course of the disease, when the prognosis is poor and treatment options are limited [10]. A complete diagnostic evaluation includes a medical history, physical examination, pulmonary function tests, electrocardiogram, echocardiogram, cardiac catheterisation and advanced imaging. Invasive haemodynamic evaluation is mandatory, not only to confirm the diagnosis but also to address the prognosis and the patient''s eligibility for the use of calcium channel blockers through an acute vasodilator challenge. Non-invasive surrogate response markers to the acute vasodilator test have been sought. In other studies, mean pulmonary artery distensibility (mPAD) has been evaluated using MRI to assess pulmonary haemodynamics and diagnose pulmonary vascular disease [11,12]. The mPAD may reflect the degree of vascular remodelling, making it a very interesting marker for the evaluation of patients with idiopathic PAH (IPAH) [13]. Jardim et al [14] found that the cardiac index, calculated after the determination of cardiac output using MRI and pulmonary artery catheterisation, showed excellent correlation, as did right atrial pressure and the RV ejection fraction. They also found that PAD was significantly higher in acute vasodilator test responders. A receiver operating characteristic curve analysis has shown that 10% distensibility can be used to differentiate responders from non-responders with 100% sensitivity and 56% specificity. This study suggested that MRI and PAD may be useful non-invasive tools for the evaluation of patients with PH. In some cases, definitive diagnosis requires a thoracoscopic lung biopsy [3]. Because CTEPH differs considerably from other forms of PH and may be treated surgically, an accurate diagnosis is essential [15].The depiction of occluding thrombotic material and concomitant perfusion defects is a prerequisite for the correct and reliable diagnosis of CTEPH. Until recently, pulmonary perfusion could be assessed only by using radionuclide perfusion scintigraphy and conventional pulmonary angiography. The former technique has substantial limitations with respect to spatial and temporal resolution, and the latter requires invasive catheterisation of the right side of the heart and produces only two-dimensional projection images [16].Pulmonary multidetector CT angiography (MDCTA), pulmonary MR angiography (MRA), and MR-derived pulmonary perfusion (MRPP) are non-invasive imaging techniques used to assess PH-related pulmonary vessel changes in the differential diagnosis [16]. MDCTA is considered the gold standard for the diagnosis of CTEPH because it depicts the occluding thrombotic material and concomitant lung changes [16]. However, the combined use of MRA and MRPP allows the evaluation of PH-related pulmonary vessel changes and concomitant perfusion defects without ionising radiation or iodinated contrast material, and can be useful for patients in whom such material cannot be used. Few studies to date have sought to determine the accuracy of MRA in distinguishing the various causes of PH [16-18].MRI also contributes to the cardiac evaluation of patients with PH. Cardiac MRI is the gold standard technique for the assessment of ventricular function and the quantification of volumes and mass without geometric assumptions [19]. Recently, myocardial delayed enhancement after the intravenous administration of a gadolinium-based contrast agent has been shown at the insertion points of the RV free wall in the interventricular septum in patients with PAH and impaired ventricular function [20]. McCann et al [21] also suggested that the extent of hyperenhancement was not correlated with any clinical or haemodynamic variable, but was inversely correlated with RV dysfunction measured on cardiac MRI.This review aims to compare the imaging aspects of pulmonary MRA and 64-row MDCTA in patients with CTEPH and IPAH, and to highlight the main differences between these techniques. Patients with other forms of PH are not considered here because CT is superior to MRI for the evaluation of lung parenchyma. 相似文献
Table 1
Classification of pulmonary hypertension according to the 4th World Symposium, Dana Point, CA, 2008 [2]1. Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) |
1.1. Idiopathic PAH |
1.2. Heritable PAH |
1.2.1. Bone morphogenetic protein receptor type 2 |
1.2.2. Activin receptor-like kinase type 1 (ALK1) |
ALK1, endoglin (with or without hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia) |
1.2.3. Unknown |
1.3. Drug- and toxin-induced |
1.4. Associated with: |
1.4.1. Connective tissue diseases |
1.4.2. HIV infection |
1.4.3. Portal hypertension |
1.4.4. Congenital heart diseases |
1.4.5. Schistosomiasis |
1.4.6. Chronic haemolytic anaemia |
1.5. Persistent neonatal pulmonary hypertension |
1′. Pulmonary veno-occlusive disease and/or pulmonary capillary haemangiomatosis |
2. Pulmonary hypertension due to left heart disease |
2.1. Systolic dysfunction |
2.2. Diastolic dysfunction |
2.3. Valvular disease |
3. Pulmonary hypertension due to lung diseases and/or hypoxia |
3.1. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |
3.2. Interstitial lung disease |
3.3. Other pulmonary diseases with mixed restrictive and obstructive pattern |
3.4. Sleep-disordered breathing |
3.5. Alveolar hypoventilation disorders |
3.6. Chronic exposure to high altitude |
3.7. Developmental abnormalities |
4. Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension |
5. Pulmonary hypertension with unclear multifactorial mechanisms |
5.1. Haematological disorders: myeloproliferative disorders, splenectomy |
5.2. Systemic disorders: sarcoidosis, pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, neurofibromatosis, vasculitis |
5.3. Metabolic disorders: glycogen storage disease, Gaucher disease, thyroid disorders |
5.4. Other: tumoral obstruction, fibrosing mediastinitis, chronic renal failure on dialysis |
6.
Objectives
The aim of this study was to evaluate the success rate in ultrasonography-guided ethanol ablation (EA) of benign, predominantly solid thyroid nodules and to assess the value of colour Doppler ultrasonography in prediction of its success.Methods
From January 2008 to June 2009, 30 predominantly solid thyroid nodules in 27 patients were enrolled. Differences in the success rate of EA were assessed according to nodule vascularity, nodule size, ratio of cystic component, amount of injected ethanol, degree of intranodular echo-staining just after ethanol injection and the number of EA sessions.Results
On follow-up ultrasonography after EA for treatment of thyroid nodules, 16 nodules showed an excellent response (90% or greater decrease in volume) and 2 nodules showed a good response (50–90% decrease in volume) on follow-up ultrasonography. However, 5 nodules showed an incomplete response (10–50% decrease in volume) and 7 nodules showed a poor response (10% or less decrease in volume). Statistical analysis revealed a significant association of nodule vascularity (p = 0.002) and degree of intranodular echo-staining just after ethanol injection (p = 0.003) with a successful outcome; however, no such association was observed with regard to nodule size, ratio of cystic component, amount of infused ethanol and the number of EA sessions. No serious complications were observed during or after EA.Conclusion
The success rate of EA was 60%, and nodule vascularity and intranodular echo-staining on colour Doppler ultrasonography were useful in predicting the success rate of EA for benign, predominantly solid thyroid nodules.Livraghi et al [1] used ultrasonography-guided ethanol ablation (EA) for the treatment of hyperfunctioning thyroid nodules; EA has since been established as the first-line treatment for benign cystic thyroid nodules, and may be considered an appropriate alternative to clinical follow-up, radioiodine therapy or thyroid surgery for treatment of autonomous functioning thyroid nodules (AFTNs) or toxic nodules. Advantages of EA include low risk, low cost, practicability in the outpatient clinic and ease of performance [2-14]. However, radioiodine therapy and surgery remain the treatments of choice for large toxic thyroid nodules [5,8,9,15].Following the initial use of EA in the treatment of benign cystic thyroid nodules [16], many published studies have reported appreciable efficacy of EA in the treatment of benign cystic thyroid nodules and recurrent cystic nodules [17-26]. However, published data regarding the EA of solid thyroid nodules have shown varying results, depending on nodule size, the volume of ethanol instilled and the presence of nodule toxicity (2-14]. Thus, the use of EA in the treatment of solid thyroid nodules has been limited owning to controversy over its efficacy and clinical indications. Several studies have attempted to determine factors that might be predictive of the effectiveness of EA in AFTNs or toxic nodules. These studies found that an initial nodule volume [5,8-10] and the presence of a cystic component making up more than 30% of the total volume are important factors in predicting a positive response to EA [14]. Despite these results, EA is rarely selected for the treatment of a solid thyroid nodule compared with the options of clinical follow-up, radioiodine therapy or surgery. Identification of factors that might aid in the accurate prediction of the success of EA in the treatment of solid thyroid nodules could result in more frequent clinical use of EA. To the best of our knowledge, no study of the feasibility of colour Doppler ultrasonography for predicting the success in EA of predominantly solid thyroid nodules has been conducted to date.Table 1
The published data of ethanol ablation for solid thyroid nodulesReference number in present study | First author | Year | Type of nodules | Number of patients | Number of sessions | Success rate (%) | Major complication |
2 | Martino | 1992 | AFTN | 37 | 1–3 | 100a | No |
3 | Mazzeo | 1993 | AFTN | 32 | 3–10 | 100a | No |
4 | Papini | 1993 | Toxic | 20 | 3–8 | 100a | No |
5 | Livraghi | 1994 | AFTN | 101 | 4–8 | 58.4b | No |
6 | Goletti | 1994 | Cold | 20 | 1–3 | 100a | No |
7 | Bennedbak | 1995 | Cold | 13 | 1 | 43a | No |
8 | Di Lelio | 1995 | AFTN | 31 | 3–7 | 77b | No |
9 | Lippi | 1996 | AFTN | 429 | 2–12 | 74.6a | No |
10 | Monzani | 1997 | Toxic | 117 | 5–10 | 77.9b | No |
11 | Zingrillo | 1998 | Cold | 41 | 2–8 | 92.7a | No |
12 | Tarantino | 2000 | AFTN | 12 | 4–11 | 100a | No |
13 | Kim | 2003 | Solid | 22 | 1–3 | 35a | No |
14 | Guglielmi | 2004 | AFTN | 112 | 2–7 | 64.2a | No |
7.
M H Seegenschmiedt O Micke R Muecke the German Cooperative Group on Radiotherapy for Non-malignant Diseases 《The British journal of radiology》2015,88(1051)
Every year in Germany about 50,000 patients are referred and treated by radiotherapy (RT) for “non-malignant disorders”. This highly successful treatment is applied only for specific indications such as preservation or recovery of the quality of life by means of pain reduction or resolution and/or an improvement of formerly impaired physical body function owing to specific disease-related symptoms. Since 1995, German radiation oncologists have treated non-malignant disorders according to national consensus guidelines; these guidelines were updated and further developed over 3 years by implementation of a systematic consensus process to achieve national upgraded and accepted S2e clinical practice guidelines. Throughout this process, international standards of evaluation were implemented. This review summarizes most of the generally accepted indications for the application of RT for non-malignant diseases and presents the special treatment concepts. The following disease groups are addressed: painful degenerative skeletal disorders, hyperproliferative disorders and symptomatic functional disorders. These state of the art guidelines may serve as a platform for daily clinical work; they provide a new starting point for quality assessment, future clinical research, including the design of prospective clinical trials, and outcome research in the underrepresented and less appreciated field of RT for non-malignant disorders.Every year about 50,000 patients in Germany are treated for “non-malignant disorders” respectively “benign disease conditions” by using ionizing radiation applied in >300 radiotherapy (RT) facilities.1–4 The aim of these treatments are and will be the preservation or recovery of various quality of life aspects, for example, by prevention of or reduction of pain and/or improvement of formerly disabled physical body functions.Non-malignant indications for RT comprise about 10–30% of all treated patients in most academic, public and private RT facilities in Germany. Over the past decade, various so called patterns of care studies (PCSs) have focused on the general and various specific aspects of these diseases and their RT treatment conditions and concepts in Germany.1–5 Overall, there is not a single RT institution among all 300 active RT facilities in Germany that does not offer RT for these benign or “non-malignant diseases”.1–4Since 1995 and together with the foundation of the German Society of Radiation Therapy and Oncology (DEGRO), a scientific task force group was formed, the German Cooperative Group on Radiotherapy for Benign Diseases (GCG-BD), which undertook the task to review the large amount of clinical experience gained in several decades from 1930 to 1990 in Germany about the use of RT for non-malignant disorders; the relevant articles and clinical data were systematically discussed and evaluated by a scientific panel and a “Delphi” consensus process involving all active RT providers. The first National guideline was defined and published in the year 2000.1 From then on, specific PCSs and prospective randomized clinical trials were developed to improve the available levels of evidence (LOEs) for various non-malignant disorders.5–8 Meanwhile, a considerable number of clinical trials have been carried out and published.9–14The updated National practice guideline v. 2.0 of the most common RT indications for non-malignant diseases were developed between 2010 and 2013 by a nominated group of specialists in conjunction with all members of the German Radiation Oncology Society (DEGRO) and GCG-BD; the Delphi consensus process comprised several national-held symposia, working group meetings and the circulation of all preliminary text versions within the responsible writing committee group members and the final presentation in the national scientific DEGRO meeting in the year 2013.These updated practice guidelines focus on those clearly defined RT indications that have become clinically relevant in terms of the high clinical demand (i.e. number of referrals from other medical disciplines), and the currently achieved quantity and quality of treatments, which had been determined by an evaluation of the continuously increasing number of treated patients between the first two evaluation periods within Germany (Non-malignant diseases (treatment groups) 1999 2004 Increase (%) Inflammatory 456 503 10.9 Degenerative 12,600 23,754 88.5 Hyperproliferative 972 1252 28.8 Functional/other 6099 10,637 74.4 Overall 20,082 37,410 86.3