The WCST-64: a standardized short-form of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test

The Wisconsin Cart Sorting Test (WCST) is a well-established measure of executive function. Practical and financial constraints have increased the need for abbreviated neuropsychological procedures. A number of abbreviated versions of the WCST have been introduced and cogent arguments can be made for one over another in certain situations. However, the single deck, 64-card WCST (WCST-64) is the most logical and practical short form. Psychological Assessment Resources (PAR) has recently published a new manual with comprehensive norms for the WCST-64. This paper reviews the new product, discusses the comparability of the WCST-64 and the standard version, and suggests directions for future research.     

Are normative data from the 64-card version of the WCST comparable to the full WCST?

A retrospective study of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) protocols was undertaken to determine the equivalence of the full WCST (Heaton, Chelune, Talley, Kay, & Curtiss, 1993) with the single-deck version of the WCST. Census-matched and demographically adjusted standardized scores for the full WCST were compared to the single deck WCST (WCST-64) with 332 clinical protocols using two methods. The comparisons were made using (1) standard scores derived from the new WCST-64 norms (Kongs, Thompson, Iverson, & Heaton, 2000) and from (2) WCST-64 percent scores standardized with the norms intended for the full WCST. The results revealed adequate correlations and accuracy scores for both census-based norms, although WCST-64 scores adjusted for demographic information were not comparable to full WCST scores. Furthermore, the number of cases in which estimated scores performed within an acceptable range of actual full-version WCST scores fell below acceptable ranges. Clinicians are encouraged to use data from the WCST-64 with caution.     

Declarative memory and WCST-64 performance in subjects with schizophrenia and healthy controls

The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) is a set-switching task used extensively to study impaired executive functioning in schizophrenia. Declarative memory deficits have also been associated with schizophrenia and may affect WCST performance because continued correct responding depends on remembering the outcome of previous responses. This study examined whether performance in visual and verbal declarative memory tasks were associated with WCST performance. Subjects comprised 30 patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder (SCZ) and 30 demographically matched healthy controls (CON) who were tested on the WCST, the Benton Visual Retention Test (BVRT), the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT), and the Continuous Performance Test (CPT). SCZ subjects showed significant correlations between visual and verbal declarative memory and performance on the WCST-64 that were in the hypothesized direction such that worse memory performance was associated with worse performance on the WCST. CON subjects did not show a significant relationship between visual or verbal memory and WCST-64 performance. Fisher's r to z transformations indicated that the associations between declarative memory and WCST-64 performance in the SCZ subjects differed significantly from those of CON subjects. The findings suggest that interpretations of WCST-64 scores for subjects with schizophrenia should be considered in light of their declarative memory functioning.     

Validity of the WCST-64 After Traumatic Brain Injury

TheWisconsin Card Sorting Test-64 (WCST-64) is a recent modification of theWisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) that utilizes only one deck of cards. The present study investigated the validity of the WCST-64 in a sample of 100 patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Mean T scores for Perseverative Responses were more than half a standard deviation lower for the WCST-64 than for the full-length version, even though the respective variables shared almost two thirds of common variance. Moreover, about a quarter of the sample had a T score discrepancy between the respective Perseverative Responses indexes that was greater than one standard deviation. The findings indicate that the WCST-64 cannot be used interchangeably with the original WCST, at least not in patients with TBI.     

Validity of the WCST-64 after traumatic brain injury in children

The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test-64 (WCST-64) is a recently normed modification of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) that utilizes only one deck of cards. The present study investigated the validity of the WCST-64 in a sample of fifty-six 10- to 16-year-old children with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Standard scores for perseverative responses from the WCST-64 and from the full-length WCST shared 83% of common variance. Less than 10% of this sample had a discrepancy between the respective indexes that was greater than one standard deviation. Correlations with external criteria such as length of coma and Full Scale IQ were not significantly different between the two versions of the instrument. The findings suggest that the WCST-64 may be used interchangeably with the original WCST in older children with TBI.     

Validity of the WCST-64 after traumatic brain injury

The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test-64 (WCST-64) is a recent modification of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) that utilizes only one deck of cards. The present study investigated the validity of the WCST-64 in a sample of 100 patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Mean T scores for Perseverative Responses were more than half a standard deviation lower for the WCST-64 than for the full-length version, even though the respective variables shared almost two thirds of common variance. Moreover, about a quarter of the sample had a T score discrepancy between the respective Perseverative Responses indexes that was greater than one standard deviation. The findings indicate that the WCST-64 cannot be used interchangeably with the original WCST, at least not in patients with TBI.     

Use of the WCST and the WCST-64 in the Assessment of Traumatic Brain Injury

The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) has been found to be valid in characterizing cognitive dysfunction in a variety of neurological disorders including traumatic brain injury (TBI). However, the test has been criticized as being too lengthy and frustrating for severely impaired patients. As a result, shortened versions of the WCST have been proposed. The utility of one of these shortened versions, the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test-64 (WCST-64), was examined in 106 persons with TBI. Findings showed strong associations between scores derived from the two tests. WCST scores were predicted from WCST-64 scores with sufficient accuracy for research purposes with adjusted R -squared values ranging from .74 to .87. Using the standard cutpoint of < 40T to indicate impairment or normal performance for perseverative responses from each of the two tests, 91 (86%) of 106 subjects received the same classification showing substantial agreement (Kappa statistic 0.71; 95% CI 0.58–0.84). The WCST and the WCST-64 also performed comparably in predicting functional status at discharge from inpatient rehabilitation using the first score from a principal components analysis as a summary measure (both significant with p =.0002). These findings support the use of the WCST-64 in early evaluations of persons with moderate and severe TBI.     

Use of the WCST and the WCST-64 in the assessment of traumatic brain injury

The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) has been found to be valid in characterizing cognitive dysfunction in a variety of neurological disorders including traumatic brain injury (TBI). However, the test has been criticized as being too lengthy and frustrating for severely impaired patients. As a result, shortened versions of the WCST have been proposed. The utility of one of these shortened versions, the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test-64 (WCST-64), was examined in 106 persons with TBI. Findings showed strong associations between scores derived from the two tests. WCST scores were predicted from WCST-64 scores with sufficient accuracy for research purposes with adjusted R-squared values ranging from .74 to .87. Using the standard cutpoint of < 40T to indicate impairment or normal performance for perseverative responses from each of the two tests, 91 (86%) of 106 subjects received the same classification showing substantial agreement (Kappa statistic 0.71; 95% CI 0.58-0.84). The WCST and the WCST-64 also performed comparably in predicting functional status at discharge from inpatient rehabilitation using the first score from a principal components analysis as a summary measure (both significant with p = .0002). These findings support theuse of the WCST-64 in early evaluations of persons with moderate and severe TBI.     

Construct validity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test-64 in patients with stroke

This study examined the factor structure and contrasted-group validity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test-64 (WCST-64) in a stroke sample (n = 112). Confirmatory factor analyses were used to compare five different models suggested by prior factor analyses. The results indicated that the WCST-64 was best represented by a three-dimensional model comprising response inflexibility (factor 1), ineffective hypothesis-testing strategy (factor 2), and set maintenance (factor 3). A significant overall multivariate effect for group (F = 2.87, df = 18,495.46, p <.001) was found in a multivariate analysis of covariance with WCST scores as dependent variables and four different groups (three stroke subgroups with different levels of cognitive function and a normal control group) as independent variable, after controlling for gender. The results of discriminant analysis supported the use of the WCST-64 in stroke patients with cognitive impairment.     

Practice effects on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test-64 Card version across 12 months

The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST: Heaton, Chelune, Talley, Kay, & Curtiss, 1993) is among the most commonly administered measures of executive function. Recently, a short form of the test was developed (WCST-64: Kongs, Thompson, Iverson, & Heaton, 2000), and it affords psychometric properties commensurate with the full version of the test. Yet, similar to other measures of executive function, relatively little is known concerning the effects of repeated administration on the WCST-64. Towards this end, 53 men (age M = 32.38) were administered the WCST-64 twice over 12 months, and scores on several indices improved significantly during this interval. Suggestions concerning the use of these measures in longitudinal research designs and clinical follow-up examinations are offered, and reliable change indices concerning these measures are included.     

Analysis of an abbreviated form of the Wisconsin card sorting test

The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) was administered to 120 subjects in the standardized 128-card format. The standard scoring measures of the traditional administration were compared to those obtained using only the first 64 cards. Rank ordered correlations for all of the measures were significant. T-test comparisons revealed no differences on the measures between the test versions. These results provide preliminary support for an abbreviated administration of the WCST. Suggestions regarding further research are discussed.     

首发精神分裂症患者及其父母执行功能障碍的研究

目的探讨首发精神分裂症患者及其父母执行功能障碍的情况。方法对32例符合DSM-Ⅳ精神分裂症诊断标准的精神分裂症患者，64例精神分裂症患者的健康父母，32例患者的健康对照组和64例患者父母的健康对照组等分别实施威斯康星卡片分类测试（WCST），最后对WCST测试结果分别进行比较。结果在WCST正确数、错误数、持续错误数、非持续错误数、正确分类数等所有评定指标上，精神分裂症患者组及其父母组测试成绩均明显差于其各自的对照组（P〈0．01），患者组与其父母组测试成绩对比无显著性差异（P〉0．05）。结论首发精神分裂症患者及其父母均存在执行功能障碍，但二者受损程度比较无显著性差异。     

Performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in schizophrenia and genes of dopaminergic inactivation (COMT, DAT, NET)

The aim of the study was to test an association between polymorphisms of genes connected with dopaminergic inactivation in prefrontal cortex [catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), dopamine transporter (DAT), norepinephrine transporter (NET)], and performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), in schizophrenic patients. The number of perseverative errors (WCST-P), non-perseverative errors (WCST-NP), completed corrected categories (WCST-CC), conceptual level responses (WCST-%CONC) and set to the first category (WCST-1st CAT) were measured. Genotyping was done for the Val108(158)Met polymorphism of the COMT gene (79 patients), the 3'UTR VNTR polymorphism of the DAT gene (124 patients) and the 1287 A/G polymorphism of the NET gene (63 patients). Male schizophrenic patients with Val/Val genotype of COMT obtained better results on WCST-P, while female patients had worse results on the WCST-NP compared with the remaining genotypes. There was a slight trend for patients with the A9/A9 genotype of DAT and with the A/A genotype of NET to perform better on some domains of the WCST, compared with other genotypes. A limitation to the interpretation of results could be small number of patients studied as well as variable psychopathological state and medication during cognitive testing.     

Improvement of cognitive functions in chronic schizophrenic patients by recombinant human erythropoietin

Schizophrenia is increasingly recognized as a neurodevelopmental disease with an additional degenerative component, comprising cognitive decline and loss of cortical gray matter. We hypothesized that a neuroprotective/neurotrophic add-on strategy, recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEPO) in addition to stable antipsychotic medication, may be able to improve cognitive function even in chronic schizophrenic patients. Therefore, we designed a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized, multicenter, proof-of-principle (phase II) study. This study had a total duration of 2 years and an individual duration of 12 weeks with an additional safety visit at 16 weeks. Chronic schizophrenic men (N=39) with defined cognitive deficit (>or=1 s.d. below normal in the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS)), stable medication and disease state, were treated for 3 months with a weekly short (15 min) intravenous infusion of 40,000 IU rhEPO (N=20) or placebo (N=19). Main outcome measure was schizophrenia-relevant cognitive function at week 12. The neuropsychological test set (RBANS subtests delayed memory, language-semantic fluency, attention and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST-64) - perseverative errors) was applied over 2 days at baseline, 2 weeks, 4 weeks and 12 weeks of study participation. Both placebo and rhEPO patients improved in all evaluated categories. Patients receiving rhEPO showed a significant improvement over placebo patients in schizophrenia-related cognitive performance (RBANS subtests, WCST-64), but no effects on psychopathology or social functioning. Also, a significant decline in serum levels of S100B, a glial damage marker, occurred upon rhEPO. The fact that rhEPO is the first compound to exert a selective and lasting beneficial effect on cognition should encourage new treatment strategies for schizophrenia.     

Correlation between clinical syndromes and neuropsychological tasks in unmedicated patients with recent onset schizophrenia

The aim of this study is to circumscribe the cognitive deficits according to schizophrenic syndromes in a population of sub-acute untreated patients. We have studied the cross-sectional correlation between cognitive deficits and schizophrenic symptoms, in a group of 24 untreated patients (including 17 neuroleptic-naive patients) with recent onset of the disease. A task of alertness, a working memory (WM) test (including two levels of difficulty) and an abbreviated version of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) were selected. WM deficits and poor performance on the WCST were highly correlated with disorganized symptoms, modestly with the positive syndrome and not with the negative syndrome. Thus, disorganized symptoms, more than any other, appear to be related to the impairment of executive function and WM in recent onset unmedicated patients with schizophrenia.     

不同脑部重复经颅磁刺激对精神分裂症患者认知功能的影响

目的:初步探讨不同部位θ短阵快速脉冲(TBS)重复经颅磁刺激(rTMS)对精神分裂症患者认知功能的影响。方法:96例精神分裂症患者随机分为左侧额叶组、双侧额叶组、左侧颞叶组及假刺激组,每组各24例。在维持原有抗精神病药种类及剂量不变的基础上采用TBS模式进行相应部位rTMS,每周5次,4周为1疗程。治疗前后应用威斯康星卡片分类测验-64(WCST-64)、定步调听觉连续加法测验(PASAT)、霍普金斯词汇学习测验-修订版(HVLT-R)对患者认知功能进行评定。结果:92例患者完成疗程;治疗前各组HVLT-R、WCST-64及PASAT评分差异无统计学意义;治疗后,除假刺激组外,其余3组PASAT、HVLT-R评分较治疗前明显升高(P均0.05);WCST-64的持续错误数和持续反应数均明显下降(P0.05,P0.01),其中左侧额叶组及双侧额叶组PASAT、HVLT-R评分较左侧颞叶组明显升高(P0.05,P0.01),WCST-64持续错误数和持续反应数较左侧颞叶组明显下降(P0.05,P0.01),左侧额叶组和双侧额叶组间HVLT-R、WCST-64及PASAT评分差异无统计学意义。结论:TBS模式的rTMS刺激左侧额叶﹑双侧额叶及左侧颞叶对精神分裂症患者认知功能均有明显改善,刺激左侧额叶及双侧额叶的改善作用更佳。     

Practice Effects on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test–64 Card Version Across 12 Months

The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST: Heaton, Chelune, Talley, Kay, & Curtiss, 1993) is among the most commonly administered measures of executive function. Recently, a short form of the test was developed (WCST–64: Kongs, Thompson, Iverson, & Heaton, 2000), and it affords psychometric properties commensurate with the full version of the test. Yet, similar to other measures of executive function, relatively little is known concerning the effects of repeated administration on the WCST–64. Towards this end, 53 men (age M = 32.38) were administered the WCST–64 twice over 12 months, and scores on several indices improved significantly during this interval. Suggestions concerning the use of these measures in longitudinal research designs and clinical follow-up examinations are offered, and reliable change indices concerning these measures are included.     

Self-monitoring enhances Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in patients with schizophrenia: performance is improved by simply asking patients to verbalize their sorting strategy.

Patients with schizophrenia have Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) deficits, which are commonly interpreted as reflecting frontal cortex-based executive dysfunction. One means of assessing the refractoriness of frontal-executive impairment is to utilize a training or modification strategy to improve WCST performance. In this study, 73 patients with schizophrenia were assigned to 1 of 2 groups. Group 1 received the standard WCST instructions for 64 cards (Condition 1). For the second 64-card deck, the patients were asked to verbalize the reason that they placed the card where they did after each sort (Condition 2). Group 2 received this modified instruction 1st (Condition 1) and then the standard instructions for the second deck (Condition 2). A group of normal comparison participants was also tested using standard instructions alone. Group 2 committed significantly fewer perseverative responses than did Group 1. Furthermore, there was no significant difference between Group 2 (Condition 1) and the normal participants. Group 1's performance improved when patients were exposed to the modified instructions (Condition 2). Additionally, poor premorbid factors and disorganized symptoms were associated with decreased benefit from the modified instructions across both groups. Cumulatively, these data suggest that a simple instruction may enhance executive function and impact WCST performance in patients with schizophrenia.     

Performance of adults ages 20 to 90 on the abbreviated Wisconsin card sorting test

Studies of the potential effect of aging on Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) performance have found older adults to perform at an impaired level relative to younger adults. This study examined the sensitivity of the 64-card version of the WCST to age-related changes in 140 healthy adults, ages 20 to 90 years. Results revealed significant linear trends for age, demonstrating decreased competence on variables of accuracy (e.g., Total Errors, Categories) and perseveration.     

Polymorphism of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene and performance on a cognitive prefrontal test in bipolar patients

Objectives:  The aim of the study was to test a possible association between the Val66Met polymorphism of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene and performance on a neurocognitive test, the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), in bipolar patients.
Methods:  Fifty-four bipolar patients were studied, 18 male and 36 female, aged 18–72 (mean 46 years). The number of perseverative errors (WCST-P), non-perseverative errors (WCST-NP), completed corrected categories (WCST-CC), conceptual level responses (WCST-%CONC) and set to the first category (WCST-1st CAT) were measured in relation to the Val66Met genotypes of BDNF.
Results:  The percentages of subjects with Val/Val, Val/Met and Met/Met genotypes were respectively 81.5, 16.7 and 1.8%. Subjects with Val/Val and Val/Met genotypes did not differ on clinical factors except for the age of onset of the illness, which was earlier in Val/Val than Val/Met genotype (27 years versus 38 years). The performance in all domains of WCST was significantly better in subjects with Val/Val BDNF genotype compared with Val/Met genotype.
Conclusions:  The results suggest a role of BDNF in prefrontal cognitive function in bipolar illness. The tests of prefrontal cognition may be considered as endophenotypic markers in bipolar illness.