The efficacy of perturbation training in nonoperative anterior cruciate ligament rehabilitation programs for physical active individuals

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Treatment techniques involving perturbations of support surfaces may induce compensatory muscle activity that could improve knee stability and increase the likelihood of returning patients to high-level physical activity. The purpose of this study was to determine the efficacy of augmenting standard nonoperative anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) rehabilitation programs with a perturbation training program. SUBJECTS: Twenty-six patients with acute ACL injury or ruptures of ACL grafts participated in the study. Subjects had to have a unilateral ACL injury, be free of concomitant multiple ligament or meniscal damage requiring surgical repair, and pass a screening examination designed to identify patients who had the potential to return to high-level physical activity with nonoperative treatments. Subjects also had to be regular participants in level I activities (eg, soccer, football, basketball) or level II activities (eg, racquet sports, skiing, construction work). METHODS: Subjects were randomly assigned to either a group that received a standard rehabilitation program (standard group) or a group that received the standard program augmented with a perturbation training program (perturbation group). Treatment outcome was determined from scores on the Knee Outcome Survey's Activities of Daily Living Scale (ADLS) and Sports Activity Scale, a global rating of knee function, scores on a series of single-limb hop tests, measurements of maximum isometric quadriceps femoris muscle force output, and the group frequency of unsuccessful rehabilitation. Unsuccessful rehabilitation was defined as the occurrence of an episode of giving way of the knee or failure to maintain the functional status of a rehabilitation candidate on retesting. RESULTS: More subjects had unsuccessful rehabilitation in the standard group compared with the perturbation group. There was a within-group x time interaction for the ADLS, global rating of knee function, and crossover hop test scores. These scores decreased from posttraining to the 6-month follow-up for the standard group. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION: Although both the standard program and the perturbation training program may allow subjects to return to high-level physical activity, the perturbation training program appears to reduce the risk of continued episodes of giving way of the knee during athletic participation and allows subjects to maintain their functional status for longer periods.     

Perturbation training improves knee kinematics and reduces muscle co-contraction after complete unilateral anterior cruciate ligament rupture

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Dynamic knee stabilization strategies of people who successfully compensate for the absence of an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) ("copers") are different from those of people who do not compensate well for the injury ("noncopers"). Early after injury, certain patients ("potential copers") can increase the likelihood of successfully compensating for the injury by participating in 10 sessions of perturbation training. The purpose of this study was to determine how perturbation training alters muscle co-contraction and knee kinematics in potential copers. SUBJECTS: Seventeen individuals with acute, unilateral ACL rupture who were categorized as potential copers and 17 subjects without injuries who were matched by age, sex, and activity level were recruited for this study. METHODS: Motion analysis and electromyographic data were collected as subjects walked across a stationary or moving platform (horizontal translation) before and after perturbation training. RESULTS: Before training, potential copers had higher co-contraction indexes and lower peak knee flexion angles than subjects without injuries. After training, potential copers' movement patterns more closely resembled those of subjects without injuries (ie, they showed reduced co-contraction indexes and increased peak knee flexion angles during stance). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Perturbation training reduced quadriceps femoris-hamstring muscle and quadriceps femoris-gastrocnemius muscle co-contractions and normalized knee kinematics in individuals with ACL rupture who were classified as potential copers. Findings from this study provide evidence for a mechanism by which perturbation training acts as an effective intervention for promoting coordinated muscle activity in a select population of people with ACL rupture.     

Rehabilitative techniques for athletes after reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament

A wide spectrum of protocols is available for rehabilitation after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction, and little agreement exists on the specifics of strengthening exercises or the sequence of activities. In this article, we discuss the current rehabilitative techniques used at the Mayo Clinic for athletes who have undergone anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. These techniques are based on established principles of rehabilitation, clinical experience, and new information about the related biomechanics of the knee. An illustrative case reflects the benefits of this rehabilitation program, which lasts up to 1 year and is divided into five stages. The early stages focus on protected mobilization and a strengthening program that emphasizes closed rather than open kinetic chain exercises. Later, neuromuscular-proprioceptive training and sport-specific agility training redevelop the reaction time and the "coordination engrams" necessary for athletic competition. High-quality surgical care and a closely supervised rehabilitation program, based on kinesiologic and biomechanical factors as they pertain to the anterior cruciate ligament, are necessary for a successful outcome.     

Uncommon causes of anterior knee pain: a case report of infrapatellar contracture syndrome.

The uncommon causes of anterior knee pain should always be considered in the differential diagnosis of a painful knee when treatment of common origins become ineffective. A case is presented in which the revised diagnosis of infrapatellar contracture syndrome was made after noting delayed progress in the rehabilitation of an active female patient with a presumed anterior horn medial meniscus tear and a contracted patellar tendon. The patient improved after the treatment program was augmented with closed manipulation under arthroscopy and infrapatellar injection of both corticosteroids and a local anesthetic. Infrapatellar contraction syndrome and other uncommon sources of anterior knee pain, including arthrofibrosis, Hoffa's syndrome, tibial collateral ligament bursitis, saphenous nerve palsy, isolated ganglions of the anterior cruciate ligament, slipped capital femoral epiphysis, and knee tumors, are subsequently discussed. Delayed functional advancement in a rehabilitation program requires full reassessment of the patient's diagnosis and treatment plan. Alternative diagnoses of knee pain are not always of common origins. Ample knowledge of uncommon causes of anterior knee pain is necessary to form a full differential diagnosis in patients with challenging presentations.     

Feasibility of using quadriceps-strengthening exercise to improve pain and sleep in a severely demented elder with osteoarthritis - a case report

BACKGROUND: Osteoarthritis (OA) of the knee, which is prevalent among older adults in nursing homes, causes significant pain and suffering, including disturbance of nocturnal sleep. One nonpharmacologic treatment option is quadriceps-strengthening exercise, however, the feasibility of such a treatment for reducing pain from OA in severely demented elders has not been studied. This report describes our test of the feasibility of such an exercise program, together with its effects on pain and sleep, in a severely demented nursing home resident. CASE PRESENTATION: The subject was an elderly man with severe cognitive impairment (Mini-Mental Status Exam score 4) and knee OA (Kellgren-Lawrence radiographic grade 4). He was enrolled in a 5-week, 10-session standardized progressive-resistance training program to strengthen the quadriceps, and completed all sessions. Pain was assessed with the Western Ontario and MacMaster OA Index (WOMAC) pain subscale, and sleep was assessed by actigraphy.The patient was able to perform the exercises, with a revision to the protocol. However, the WOMAC OA pain subscale proved inadequate for measuring pain in a patient with low cognitive functioning, and therefore the effects on pain were inconclusive. Although his sleep improved after the intervention, the influence of his medications and the amount of daytime sleep on his nighttime sleep need to be considered. CONCLUSIONS: A quadriceps-strengthening exercise program for treating OA of the knee is feasible in severely demented elders, although a better outcome measure is needed for pain.     

Nonoperative Treatment of PCL Injuries: Goals of Rehabilitation and the Natural History of Conservative Care

Purpose of Review

To review the current practices of nonoperative management of posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) injuries, the natural history of conservative care, and the latest PCL rehabilitation strategies.

Recent Findings

PCL injuries often occur as part of a multiligamentous knee injury and occasionally occur in isolation. Although patients may be able to tolerate or compensate for a PCL-deficient knee, long-term outcomes after conservative care demonstrate a high rate of arthrosis in the medial and patellofemoral compartments resulting from altered knee kinematics and loads. Good subjective outcomes and a high rate of return to sport have been reported after nonoperative treatment of isolated PCL injuries. However, PCL laxity grade on objective exam does not typically correlate with subjective outcomes, nor does it correlate with the risk of developing osteoarthritis. Although more research is needed on the optimal PCL rehabilitation strategies, general principles include avoiding posterior tibial translation in the initial period to optimize ligament healing, followed by progressive range of motion and strengthening of the quadriceps and core musculature. At 12 weeks, patients may begin an interval running program, followed by agility work and progressive sports-specific training to allow for return to sports.

Summary

Nonoperative treatment of isolated PCL injuries results in good subjective outcomes and high rate of return to sport.

     

The effectiveness of balance training programs on reducing the incidence of ankle sprains in adolescent athletes

Ankle sprains are one of the most common sport-related injuries treated by rehabilitation professionals. These injuries often result in lost participation and can lead to subsequent injury episodes. Therefore, it is important to determine appropriate means of preventing these injuries. There has recently been an increase in the popularity of balance training programs for the prevention of knee anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury, with some thought that starting these programs in younger athletes may be most beneficial. However, there is the potential that these types of training programs may also be beneficial for decreasing the risk of other lower extremity injuries, including ankle sprains in the adolescent athlete.     

Visual biofeedback exercises for improving body balance control after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction

[Purpose] To evaluate the effects of balance training after arthroscopic anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. [Subjects and Methods] Sixteen patients (mean 33 ± 8 years old) who underwent anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction three months prior to participating in a one-month rehabilitation program. The control group included 15 people aged 34 ± 4 years. Patients’ functional level was evaluated according to the Lysholm knee score, and balance quality was ascertained by static and dynamic tests. A balance platform was used to measure the center of foot pressure deflection. Two dynamic balance tests evaluated time of task execution. [Results] Lysholm knee score improved significantly after rehabilitation. Balance in the sagittal plane with eyes closed improved significantly after rehabilitation. The average velocity of center of foot pressure swing in both the frontal and sagittal planes with eyes closed differed significantly from those of controls. Execution time required for the two dynamic tests decreased significantly after rehabilitation and were significantly better than those in the controls. [Conclusion] Maintaining static balance with eyes closed is very challenging after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Maintaining balance in the sagittal plane is particularly difficult. A one-month rehabilitation program partially improves static and dynamic balance.Key words: Balance training, Anterior cruciate ligament, Reconstruction     

Visual Perturbation to Enhance Return to Sport Rehabilitation after Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury: A Clinical Commentary

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears are common traumatic knee injuries causing joint instability, quadriceps muscle weakness and impaired motor coordination. The neuromuscular consequences of injury are not limited to the joint and surrounding musculature, but may modulate central nervous system reorganization. Neuroimaging data suggest patients with ACL injuries may require greater levels of visual-motor and neurocognitive processing activity to sustain lower limb control relative to healthy matched counterparts. Therapy currently fails to adequately address these nuanced consequences of ACL injury, which likely contributes to impaired neuromuscular control when visually or cognitively challenged and high rates of re-injury. This gap in rehabilitation may be filled by visual perturbation training, which may reweight sensory neural processing toward proprioception and reduce the dependency on vision to perform lower extremity motor tasks and/or increase visuomotor processing efficiency. This clinical commentary details a novel approach to supplement the current standard of care for ACL injury by incorporating stroboscopic glasses with key motor learning principles customized to target visual and cognitive dependence for motor control after ACL injury.Level of Evidence5     

膝关节人工交叉韧带材料的运动力学特征及临床应用评价

背景：交叉韧带损伤是膝关节常见的运动损伤,可引起膝关节的疼痛和关节不稳,常伴有关节松弛、半月板损伤等症状出现。目的：分析膝关节人工交叉韧带的特点以及在膝关节交叉韧带损伤治疗中的效果评价。方法：膝关节交叉韧带发生断裂时,需要通过外科方法重建韧带功能,应用生物材料进行交叉韧带的重建,可以使患者获得较少的病废,并且允许患者膝关节在治疗后立即活动,有利于患者的康复。交叉韧带的移植材料包括自体韧带材料、同种异体韧带材料和人工韧带材料。结果与结论：膝关节交叉韧带修复重建的自体材料有骨-髌腱-骨和半腱肌移植,骨-髌腱-骨移植的并发症较多,半腱肌与股薄肌腱取材后会影响关节的功能。异体韧带材料主要包括骨-髌腱-骨和股四头肌腱-骨,异体材料的不足之处是杀灭细菌和病毒不完全。人工交叉韧带材料分为永久性韧带材料、支架韧带材料和框架韧带材料,LARS人工韧带移植治疗交叉韧带损伤的疗效较为理想,与自体韧带移植的近期疗效相比,差异有显著性意义（P〈0.05）,与自体韧带移植的远期疗效比较无差异。无论是自体、同种异体还是人工韧带材料,每种材料都有各自的优缺点,需要根据患者的自身情况和病情来决定,人工韧带材料为交叉韧带移植提供了新的材料选择,随着生物材料学和生物医学工程学的发展,人工韧带材料一定会成为韧带材料的良好替代物。     

Diagnosis of Simultaneous Acute Ruptures of the Anterior Cruciate Ligament and Posterior Cruciate Ligament Using Point-of-Care Ultrasound in the Emergency Department

Background

Patients with acute anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) injuries from sport-related activities are frequently seen in the emergency department (ED). However, knee instability tests are known to show variable sensitivity and specificity. These tests would also have limited functionality in patients with severe pain and swelling in the knee.

Conservative management of a traumatic meniscal injury utilising osteopathy and exercise rehabilitation: A case report

Meniscal injury is one of the most common knee soft tissue injuries, commonly affecting young athletes and an older, degenerative population. Treatment largely depends on the type and extent of the injury with arthroscopic repair or meniscectomy being mainstays. Although non-surgical approaches have been described, there is no published literature regarding a combination of indirect osteopathic techniques and rehabilitation in the management of these injuries. The current case report follows a 20-year-old male presenting with a 5-day history of acute knee pain, following trauma during an Australian Rules Football (AFL) match. An 8-week management plan of indirect osteopathic techniques and a tailored rehabilitation program was implemented. The Knee Injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS) and the Lower Extremity Functional Scale (LEFS) questionnaires were utilised to measure outcomes. After the 8-week treatment and rehabilitation program, the patient had exceeded the minimum detectable change score for all outcome measures. This case report suggests that osteopathic manipulative treatment and rehabilitation may be an alternative, non-surgical approach in the management of post-traumatic meniscal injuries.     

Proprioception as one of the factors deciding on the model of rehabilitation after reconstruction of ACL

Injuries of the knee joint with ACL tears are causing frontal instability of the knee. In cases of second and third degree instability it is advised to operate - reconstruction of anterior crucial ligament. The operation is the beginning of a rehabilitation program. It is very importand to rebuild static and dynamic proprioception of the knee. In the paper we present most recent opinions on that problem. We explain the role of proprioception on the knee function, also we present a hypothetical model of rehabilitation programme in different activity.     

康复训练对前交叉韧带体部部分损伤作用临床观察

目的:介绍前交叉韧带体部部分损伤的康复训练方法,总结其近期临床疗效。方法:对32例前交叉韧带体部部分损伤的患者进行1年以上系统的康复指导,按照Lysholm膝关节功能评分标准,康复前膝关节功能评分为51±18．09分。康复内容包括肌力、活动度、本体感受器训练和肌肉牵张训练等方面。通过膝关节功能评分总结这种训练方法的可行性和效果。结果:康复后6个月膝关节功能评分为74．5±14．49分,康复后12个月膝关节功能评分为75．56±14．75分。统计学分析显示,康复训练前后评分比较有显著差异。结论:对于不合并有严重后内、后外侧韧带复合结构损伤的前交叉韧带体部部分损伤,采用该方法进行康复训练是切实可行且有效的。     

Effects of osteoarthritis and fatigue on proprioception of the knee joint

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the impact of knee osteoarthritis (OA) and periarticular muscular fatigue on knee joint kinesthesia. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: A physical medicine and rehabilitation outpatient clinic. PARTICIPANTS: Fifty patients with bilateral OA of the knee, and a control group of 30 age-matched healthy volunteers. INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The Kellgren-Lawrence grading system was used to determine the radiographic severity of knee OA. The Lequesne index of severity for knee osteoarthritis was used for assessment of pain, kinesthesia was measured by determining angle reposition error at the knee joint using isokinetic dynamometry, and muscle strength was measured by isokinetic dynamometry. RESULTS: Reposition errors did not differ between the patient and the control groups, nor did they differ between pre- and postexercise. CONCLUSIONS: Mild-to-moderate OA of the knees does not affect reposition error. Fatigue produced by mild-to-moderate exercise also has no effect on reposition error.     

The impact of hip strengthening and/or neuromuscular control on frontal plane knee kinematics and kinetics in females: a systematic review

Background: Physical therapists commonly treat individuals with anterior knee pain (AKP) and anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries. Despite the suggestion for including hip strengthening or neuromuscular control exercises in preventative programs to change knee mechanics and reduce AKP and ACL injuries and in the treatment of AKP, no previous systematic review has addressed the impact of these exercises on frontal plane knee mechanics.

Objective: The purpose of this systematic review was to determine the level of evidence associated with hip strengthening or neuromuscular control exercises as an intervention to improve frontal plane knee mechanics during dynamic activity in females.

Methods: Databases searched included PubMed, CINAHL Plus with full text, and SportDiscus with full text; specific search terms were used. All studies were to include females without any current knee pain or injury. Studies had to investigate the impact of a hip strengthening or a hip neuromuscular control program or a combination of strengthening and neuromuscular control. The primary outcome measure of interest was frontal plane knee mechanics.

Results: A total of 414 articles were identified. Eight additional articles were identified using other sources. Fourteen studies were ultimately included in the qualitative analysis. There was support for neuromuscular control exercises as well as neuromuscular control plus strengthening exercises to improve frontal plane knee mechanics during dynamic activity in females. Strengthening alone was not supported.

Conclusion: Clinically, one should consider either a neuromuscular control program or a combined neuromuscular control plus strength training program for females to improve frontal plane knee mechanics during dynamic activity. This may be particularly relevant in prevention of ACL injuries and AKP.     

Effects of distally fixated versus nondistally fixated leg extensor resistance training on knee pain in the early period after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Nondistally fixated (ie, what is often referred to as "open kinetic chain" [OKC]) knee extensor resistance training appears to have lost favor for some forms of rehabilitation due partly to concerns that this exercise will irritate the extensor mechanism. In this randomized, single-blind clinical trial, nondistally fixated versus distally fixated (ie, often called "closed kinetic chain" [CKC]) leg extensor training were compared for their effects on knee pain. SUBJECTS: Forty-three patients recovering from anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction surgery (34 male, 9 female; mean age=29 years, SD=7.9, range=16-54). METHODS: Knee pain was measured at 2 and 6 weeks after ACL reconstruction surgery using visual analog scales in a self-assessment questionnaire and during maximal isometric contractions of the knee extensors. Between test sessions, subjects trained 3 times per week using either OKC or CKC resistance of their knee and hip extensors as part of their physical therapy. RESULTS: No differences in knee pain were found between the treatment groups. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Open kinetic chain and CKC leg extensor training in the early period after ACL reconstruction surgery do not differ in their immediate effects on anterior knee pain. Based on these findings, further studies are needed using different exercise dosages and patient groups.     

Knee injuries in general practice

Careful technique of examination of the knee joint allows to establish the diagnosis of the most frequent knee joint injuries already through simple clinical and radiological evaluation: Recurrent dislocation of the patella with the Apprehension sign; meniscal injuries with the test of McMurray, pain on the joint line and pain on passive hyperextension; the anterior cruciate ligament tear with Lachman's sign and the Pivot Shift test and posterior cruciate injury with the Sag sign. Further imaging techniques allow to establish a definite diagnosis, which has replaced in many cases the classical, purely diagnostic arthroscopy. Thanks to careful aspiration of the knee joint the patient can be referred with a more precise diagnosis to the traumatologist and orthopaedic surgeon. Meniscal lesions don't have to be treated as emergencies with exception of the locked knee. Equally, in presence of a fresh tear of the anterior cruciate ligament a delay of surgery for eight weeks may be beneficial, be it only to rehab and prepare the knee joint for surgery. Posterior cruciate ligament tears should only be treated by a few centers, since they demand a high degree of experience. The same accounts for the new techniques for the treatment of cartilage lesions like the mosaicplasty or the autologous chondrocyte implantation.