Multicenter,Prospective Study of Prehospital Administration of Analgesia in the U.S. Combat Theater of Afghanistan

Background: Published data on prehospital medical care in combat is limited, likely due to the chaotic and unpredictable nature of care under fire and difficulty in documentation There is limited data on how often analgesic agents are administered, which drug are being used, and whether there is an association with injury patterns. Methods: This study was a prospective, multicenter, observational study to determine which analgesic agents are being used prehospital and whether there is an association with injury patterns. Data was collected and recorded as casualties were brought into combat surgical hospitals in Afghanistan from October 2012 to April 2014. Onsite, trained investigators collected the data as part of a IRB approved protocol. Outcome data to 30 days was obtained from the DoD Trauma Registry (DODTR) within the Joint Trauma System. Results: During the study period 532 patient encounters available for inclusion with 378 receiving an analgesic agent (total of 541 administrations). The average age was 27 (range 21–31), 99% male, 40% were US or coalition forces. Parenteral medications used were ketamine, fentanyl, morphine, hydromorphone and ketorolac. Penetrating injuries were more likely to receive analgesic agent (89% vs 79%, p=0.0057). Blunt trauma was less likely to receive ketamine (p=0.008). Fentanyl was used more for patients with an Injury Severity Score (ISS) >15 (p=0.016). Conclusion: Patients with penetrating trauma are more likely to receive analgesic agents in the combat prehospital setting. The most common analgesic used was ketamine. Patient ISS was not associated with administration of analgesia. Patients receiving analgesia were more likely to still be hospitalized at 30 days. The prospective nature of this study supports feasibility for future, larger, more comprehensive projects.     

Essential role of prehospital care in the optimal outcome from major trauma

Prehospital care for major trauma victims is a balance of timely delivery to definitive care and appropriate intervention to maximize probability of survival. In the development of advanced, organized prehospital care systems, the evidence for the benefit of individual interventions has been limited and contradictory. Leading controversies reviewed are: the place of advanced life support, the role of doctors compared with paramedics, the optimal advanced airway adjunct, the role of intravenous fluids in serious injury, and the value of prehospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation following traumatic cardiac arrest. International differences in trauma epidemiology are discussed. The identification of prehospital care as the weak link within a trauma system is highlighted.     

Prehospital Interventions Performed on Pediatric Trauma Patients in Iraq and Afghanistan

Background: United States (US) and coalition military medical units deployed to combat zones frequently encounter pediatric trauma patients. Pediatric patients may present unique challenges due to their anatomical and physiological characteristics and most military prehospital providers lack pediatric-specific training. A minimal amount of data exists to illuminate the prehospital care of pediatric patients in this environment. We describe the prehospital care of pediatric trauma patients in Iraq and Afghanistan. Methods: We queried the Department of Defense Trauma Registry (DODTR) for all pediatric subjects admitted to US and Coalition fixed-facility hospitals in Iraq and Afghanistan from January 2007 to January 2016. Subjects were grouped by age: <1, 1–4, 5–9, 10–14, and 15–17 years. We focused our analysis on interventions related to trauma resuscitation. Results: Of 42,790 encounters in the DODTR during the study period, 3,439 (8.0%) were aged <18 years. Most subjects were in the 5–9 age group (33.1%), male (77.1%), located in Afghanistan (67.8%), injured by explosives (43.1%). Most subjects survived to hospital discharge (90.2%). The most frequently performed interventions were tourniquet placement (6.6%), intubation (6.1%), supplemental oxygen (11.7%), IV access (24.8%), IV fluids (13.3%), IO access (5.1%), and hypothermia prevention (44.5%). The most frequently administered medications were antibiotics (6.2%) and opioids (15.0%). Most procedural and medication interventions occurred in subjects injured by explosives (43.1%) and gunshot wounds (22.1%). Conclusions: Pediatric subjects comprised over 1 in 13 casualties treated in the joint theaters with the majority injured by explosives. Vascular access and hypothermia prevention interventions were the most frequently performed procedures.     

Effects on patient care of introducing prehospital intravenous nalbuphine hydrochloride.

OBJECTIVE: Since March 1992, intravenous nalbuphine hydrochloride has been used prehospital by paramedics in the Plymouth area. This study assesses the impact of this intervention. METHODS: A prospective study of the parenteral analgesic requirements of 1000 consecutive patients arriving by ambulance at the accident and emergency (A&E) department of a large district general hospital. Where parenteral analgesia was given in the A&E department but not by ambulance personnel, a questionnaire was sent to the ambulance crew concerned to ascertain the reasons for not having given nalbuphine. RESULTS: Of 1000 consecutive patients arriving by ambulance, 87 (8.7%) had been given parenteral analgesia either prehospital, in A&E, or in both places. Seventy five (7.5%) needed parenteral analgesia in the A&E department, 29 (2.9%) had been given prehospital intravenous analgesia by paramedics, and a further seven (0.7%) had been given parenteral analgesia by a general practitioner (GP). Thus 36 (3.6%) received prehospital analgesia. Ten patients who had been given analgesia by paramedics required no further analgesia in A&E, whereas 51 patients who had not been given prehospital analgesia required parenteral analgesia in the A&E department. CONCLUSIONS: The introduction of nalbuphine for use by paramedics in prehospital care has increased prehospital parenteral analgesia from 1% in 1992 (given by GPs only) to 3.6% in the current study group, and 41% of patients requiring parenteral analgesia received analgesia prehospital. There may be further scope for extending the indications for nalbuphine use by ambulance personnel.     

Improving Prehospital Protocol Adherence Using Bundled Educational Interventions

Background: Seizures and anaphylaxis are life-threatening conditions that require immediate treatment in the prehospital setting. There is variation in treatment of pediatric prehospital patients for both anaphylaxis and seizures. This educational study was done to improve compliance with pediatric prehospital protocols, educate prehospital providers and decrease variation in care. Objective: To improve the quality of care for children with seizures and anaphylaxis in the prehospital setting using a bundled, multifaceted educational intervention. Methods: Evidence-based pediatric prehospital guidelines for seizures and anaphylaxis were used to create a curriculum for the paramedics in the EMS system. The curriculum included in-person training, videos, distribution of decision support tools, and a targeted social media campaign to reinforce the evidence-based guidelines. Prehospital charts were reviewed for pediatric patients with a chief complaint of anaphylaxis or seizures who were transported by paramedics to one of ten hospitals, including three children's hospitals, for 8 months prior to the intervention and eight months following the intervention. The primary outcome for seizures was whether midazolam was given via the preferred intranasal (IN) or intramuscular (IM) routes. The primary outcome for anaphylaxis was whether IM epinephrine was given. Results: A total of 1,402 pediatric patients were transported for seizures by paramedics to during the study period. A total of 88 patients were actively seizing pre-intervention and 93 post-intervention. Of the actively seizing patients, 52 were given midazolam pre-intervention and 62 were given midazolam post-intervention. Pre-intervention, 29% (15/52) of the seizing patients received midazolam via the preferred IM or IN routes, compared to 74% (46/62) of the seizing patients post-intervention. A total of 45 patients with anaphylaxis were transported by paramedics, 30 pre-intervention and 15 post-intervention. Paramedics administered epinephrine to 17% (5/30) patients pre-intervention and 67% (10/15) patients post-intervention. Conclusion: The use of a bundled, multifaceted educational intervention including in-person training, decision support tools, and social media improved adherence to updated evidence-based pediatric prehospital protocols.     

Prehospital trauma care

The past two decades have been a period of increased concern over the improvement of prehospital emergency medical care. Training of basic and advanced EMTs to a level of professionalism that includes a distinct body of knowledge and the use of assessment and management skills is only one component of the prehospital system. Communications systems, transportation deployment plans, and improved links with hospitals have contributed to the refinement of emergency medical systems. The management of the trauma victim is an organized plan of controlling the airway, restoring breathing, and supporting ventilation, followed by a secondary survey of the less life-threatening problems. The role of EMTs or paramedics, therefore, is to assess, manage, extricate, and transport.     

Longer Prehospital Time was not Associated with Mortality in Major Trauma: A Retrospective Cohort Study

Objective: The objective of this study was to determine the association between prehospital time and outcomes in adult major trauma patients, transported by ambulance paramedics. Methods: A retrospective cohort study of major trauma patients (Injury Severity Score >15) attended by St John Ambulance paramedics in Perth, Western Australia, who were transported to hospital between January 1, 2013 and December 31, 2016. Inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW) using the propensity score was performed to limit selection bias and confounding. The primary outcome was 30-day mortality and the secondary outcome was the length of hospital stay (LOS) for 30-day survivors. Multivariate logistic and log-linear regression analyses with IPTW were used to determine if prehospital time of more than the one hour (from receipt of the emergency call to arrival at hospital) or any individual prehospital time interval (response, on-scene, transport, or total time) was associated with 30-day mortality or LOS. Results: A total of 1,625 major trauma patients were included and 1,553 included in the IPTW sample. No significant association between prehospital time of one hour and 30-day mortality was found (adjusted odds ratio 1.10, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.71–1.69). No association between any individual prehospital time interval and 30-day mortality was identified. In the 30-day survivors, one-minute increase of on-scene time was associated with 1.16 times (95% CI 1.03–1.31) longer LOS. Conclusion: Longer prehospital times were not associated with an increased likelihood of 30-day mortality in major trauma patients transported to hospital by ambulance paramedics. We found no evidence to support the hypothesis that prehospital time longer than one hour resulted in an increased risk of 30-day mortality. However, longer on-scene time was associated with longer hospital LOS (for 30-day survivors). Our recommendation is that prehospital care is delivered in a timely fashion and delivery of the patient to hospital is reasonably prompt.     

Impact of prehospital airway management on combat mortality

Introduction

Analysis of modern military conflicts suggests that airway compromise remains the second leading cause of preventable death of combat fatalities. This study compares outcomes of combat casualties that received prehospital airway interventions, specifically bag valve mask (BVM) ventilation, cricothyrotomy, and supraglottic airway (SGA) placement. The goal is to compare the effectiveness of airway management strategies used in the military pre-hospital setting.

The role of physician staffing of helicopter emergency medical services in prehospital trauma response

The crewing of Helicopter Emergency Medical Service (HEMS) for scene response to trauma patients is generally considered to be controversial, particularly regarding the role of physicians. This is reflected in HEMS in Australia with some services utilizing physician crewing for all prehospital missions. Others however, use physicians for selected missions only whilst others do not use physicians at all. This review seeks to determine whether the literature supports using physicians in addition to paramedics in HEMS teams for prehospital trauma care. Studies were excluded if they compared physician teams with basic life support teams (BLS) teams rather than paramedics. Ambulance officers were considered to be paramedics where they were able to administer intravenous fluids and use a method of airway management beyond bag-valve-mask ventilation. Studies were excluded if the skill set of the ambulance team was not defined, the level of staffing of the helicopter service was not stated, team composition varied without reporting outcomes for each team type, patient outcome data were not reported, or the majority of the transports were interhospital rather than prehospital transports.     

广州市中心城区院前创伤急救流行病学分析

目的 分析广州市中心城区创伤院前急救的流行病学,探讨其特点及趋势。方法 采用描述性流行病学方法,收集1996年1月至2004年12月广州市中心城区“120”呼叫资料及院前创伤资料并进行分析。结果 院前急救逐年增加的同时（9年间增加了3．56倍）,创伤病例增加更明显（增加了7．88倍）,构成比由最初的17．16％增至37．98％,创伤以颅脑创伤所占比例最大（6．86％）。创伤患者年龄及死亡年龄主要集中在21～40岁,分别占57．20％和62．04％,70岁以上年龄段创伤出现第2个小高峰,占8．09％。男性是女性患者的2倍以上。结论 广州创伤伤亡人数逐年上升,创伤增加更明显,是院前急救的主要原因,其中以颅脑创伤占第一位,青壮年为主。需采取有效防治措施减少创伤事故的发生,同时,提高院前急救人员的抢救水平和快速反应能力。     

Medical support for the fire service: Current priorities and roles of physicians

Objective. To determine the safety and efficacy of succinylcholine, as an adjunct to endotracheal intubation, administered by paramedics trained in its use. Methods. Retrospective review of 1,657 consecutive patients, aged 16 years or older, receiving prehospital succinylcholine administered by paramedics. In this community of 175,000 people, trained paramedics intubated both medical and trauma patients with the assistance of succinylcholine. Main outcomes measured were success of intubations, complications of the procedure and/or the drug, and use of alternative methods of airway management. Results. Paramedics successfully intubated 95.5% (1,582) of all patients receiving succinylcholine, 94% (1,045) of trauma patients, and 98% (538) of medical patients. They were unable to intubate 4.5% (74) of the patients. All of these were successfully managed by alternative methods. Unrecognized esophageal intubation occurred in six (0.3%) patients. The addition of capnography and a tube aspiration device, in 1990, decreased the incidence of esophageal intubations. Conclusion. Paramedics trained to use succinylcholine, to assist the process of endotracheal intubation, can safely intubate a high percentage of patients.     

Joint Trauma System,Defense Committee on Trauma,and Armed Services Blood Program consensus statement on whole blood

Hemorrhage is the most common mechanism of death in battlefield casualties with potentially survivable injuries. There is evidence that early blood product transfusion saves lives among combat casualties. When compared to component therapy, fresh whole blood transfusion improves outcomes in military settings. Cold-stored whole blood also improves outcomes in trauma patients. Whole blood has the advantage of providing red cells, plasma, and platelets together in a single unit, which simplifies and speeds the process of resuscitation, particularly in austere environments. The Joint Trauma System, the Defense Committee on Trauma, and the Armed Services Blood Program endorse the following: (1) whole blood should be used to treat hemorrhagic shock; (2) low-titer group O whole blood is the resuscitation product of choice for the treatment of hemorrhagic shock for all casualties at all roles of care; (3) whole blood should be available within 30 min of casualty wounding, on all medical evacuation platforms, and at all resuscitation and surgical team locations; (4) when whole blood is not available, component therapy should be available within 30 min of casualty wounding; (5) all prehospital medical providers should be trained and logistically supported to screen donors, collect fresh whole blood from designated donors, transfuse blood products, recognize and treat transfusion reactions, and complete the minimum documentation requirements; (6) all deploying military personnel should undergo walking blood bank prescreen laboratory testing for transfusion transmitted disease immediately prior to deployment. Those who are blood group O should undergo anti-A/anti-B antibody titer testing.     

Factors influencing successful intubation in the prehospital setting

OBJECTIVE: To explore the determinants influencing oral/nasal endotracheal intubation (OETI/NETI) and determine which cognitive, therapeutic, and technical interventions may assist prehospital airway management. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Prospective review of run reports and structured interviews of paramedics involved in OETI/NETI attempts were conducted in a high-volume, inner-city, advanced life support (ALS) system during an eight-month period (July 1991 to February 1992). Data were abstracted from run reports, and paramedics were asked in structured interviews to describe difficulties in OETI/NETI attempts. RESULTS: Of 236 patients studied, 88% (208) were intubated successfully. Success/failure rate was not related statistically to patients' ages (p = 0.78), medical or trauma complaint (89% vs 85%, p = 0.35), oral versus nasal route (88% vs 85%, p = 0.38), care time (scene+transport times: success, 18 minutes; failure, 20 minutes, p = 0.30), paramedic seniority (p = 0.13), or number of attempts per paramedic (p > 0.05). Increased level of consciousness (LOC) was associated with decreased success rate (p = 0.04). Paramedics reported difficulties in endotracheal intubation (ETI) attempts in 110 (46.6%) of patients. Factors reported to increase ETI difficulty were: 1) technical problems (35.6%); 2) mechanical problems (15.6%); and 3) combative patients (12.7%). CONCLUSIONS: Oral endotracheal intubation and NETI success rates identified in this study are similar to those described in the literature, although innovative strategies could be used to facilitate prehospital airway management. Many of the factors found to increase ETI difficulty could be ameliorated by the administration of paralytic agents, that is, for combative patients. Focused training in cadaver and animal labs coupled with recurrence training in the operating suites should be used on a regular basis to decrease difficulties in visualization. Interventions directed at alleviating mechanical difficulties that should be explored include new-to-the-field techniques, such as retrograde intubation, fiber-optic technology, and surgical tracheal access.     

Difficulties with portable suction equipment used for prehospital advanced airway procedures

Introduction. Airway management is the highest priority for prehospital personnel. While different modalities for airway management are under investigation, endotracheal intubation remains the standard for definitive airway protection. Currently, airway adjuncts such as portable suction remain relatively unstudied.

Objective. To identify utilization and complications associated with portable suction equipment used by prehospital medical personnel.

Methods. Fifty-one paramedics serving a Level I urban trauma center were anonymously surveyed to determine types of equipment used, maintenance and utilization patterns, difficulties encountered, and training received with that equipment.

Results. The paramedics reported carrying suction equipment to the scene of medical aid calls less than 25% of the time. Once on scene, suction equipment is utilized during 50% of advanced airway procedures. Half of the paramedics reported complications affecting patient care at least once during their careers due to equipment malfunction. Ninety-eight percent of the paramedics reported having some type of training with the suction equipment for prehospital advanced airway procedures.

Conclusions. The results of this study suggest that suction equipment is carried to the scene infrequently and, when employed, is often found to be functioning suboptimally. Suggestions for improvement and further investigation are provided.     

浙江省8家医院创伤患者死亡危险因素分析

目的 探讨导致创伤患者死亡的危险因素以及改进创伤急救的措施.方法 整理2009年全年浙江省8所医院急诊室首诊的创伤患者的病例资料,结合创伤急救的各个环节,挑选可能导致患者死亡的相关因素,通过单因素和多因素Logistic回归分析方法,得到导致创伤患者死亡的独立危险因素.结果 2009年浙江省8所医院共有3 659名患者纳入了本次研究,其中死亡226人,病死率为6.18%.单因素分析结果提示,年龄、创伤机制、ISS评分、GCS评分、专业现场急救、转送途中气管插管、转送途中清创止血、入院时低血压、昏迷、急诊室胸腔闭式引流、急诊手术、ICU内中心静脉压监测和ICU内机械通气的患者死亡相关.多因素Logistic回归分析提示,GCS评分、ISS评分、机械通气、入院时低血压、年龄是患者死亡的独立危险因素,有效的专业现场急救是保护因素.结论 患者的伤情严重程度和年龄是影响患者结局的重要因素.加强院前急救,早期稳定患者伤情以及合理使用ICU内监护设施有助于进一步降低创伤救治的病死率.

Abstract：

Objective To explore risk factors in the mortality of casualties and to find a way to improve trauma emergency service. Method The possible factors likely related to the mortality of casualties were taken into account based on each stage of trauma emergency so as to find the independent risk factors by using univariate and multivariate analyses. Results A total of 3 659 casualties were enrolled in this study.Of them, 226 casualties died and the mortality rate was 6.18%. Following factors were related to mortality after univariate analysis: age, cause of trauma, injury severity score, Glasgow come scale come on the scene, professional emergency treatment on the scene, intubation in the ambulance, debridement and hemostasis in the ambulance, low blood pressure at admission, closed drainage of pleural cavity, emergency operation, CVP monitoring in ICU and mechanical ventilation in ICU. After multivariate analysis, six factors were independently related to the mortality of casualties as follows: Glasgow coma scale, injury severity score, mechanical ventilation, blood pressure at admission, age and professional emergency treatment on the scene. Conclusions It has a great significance to investigate the risk factors of mortality for casualties. Severity of trauma and age were independently associated with the outcomes of trauma. Besides, improving prehospital care and stabilizing the trauma patients in early phase can further decrease the mortality.     

The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake: issues in medical control

INTRODUCTION: The role of the base-hospital and on-line medical control in a disaster has not been investigated previously. This study assesses the roles of base-hospitals and the value and feasibility of on-line medical control during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. METHODS: The researchers studied five Bay Area counties most affected by the earthquake: San Francisco, Alameda, San Mateo, Santa Clara, and Santa Cruz. Researchers sent questionnaires to all 1,498 registered EMTs and paramedics in these counties; 620 were returned (41.4%). Respondents answered questions about activities performed, contacts with base-hospitals and other agencies, and problems encountered the night of the earthquake. Researchers selected 63 paramedics for in-depth interviews based on their performance of significant advanced life support (ALS) activities performed during the disaster. The coordinators of the 13 base-hospitals (BHCs) in the region also received and returned questionnaires about medical control, base-hospital roles during the disaster, and problems encountered. Researchers interviewed all five county emergency medical services (EMS) agency directors. RESULTS: The surveys of EMS directors, base-hospital coordinators, and paramedics indicate that confusion existed over the status of medical control after the earthquake. There was general agreement among base-hospital coordinators (BHCs) that suspension of medical control is appropriate in a major disaster. Three bases had appropriate equipment to function as back-up dispatch centers. Eight bases had adequate personnel, but only one BHC felt his personnel had adequate training to function in a dispatch capacity. Nine paramedics did not start or continue resuscitation on patients whom they ordinarily would have begun resuscitation. CONCLUSION: Emergency medical services should suspend medical control immediately following a major disaster and ensure that all prehospital and base personnel are notified. Disrupted communications protocols for prehospital personnel should reflect the skill and knowledge level of paramedics and the need for rapid, advanced practice in a disaster. Disaster planners should consider other roles for base hospitals in major disasters.     

The feasibility of 12-gauge intravenous catheter use in the prehospital setting

Intravenous fluid therapy is a mainstay in the treatment of trauma and hypovolemia. However, controversy exists as to its effective use by prehospital personnel. We reasoned that 12-gauge catheters, shown to have significantly greater fluid flow than 14- or 16-gauge catheters, might allow prehospital care providers to have a more significant role in patient resuscitation. This study was designed to see if 12-gauge intravenous catheters can successfully be placed and used in the prehospital care arena. During a six-month period, commercial peripheral 12-gauge catheter-over-needle intravenous units were placed in any hypovolemic or potentially hypovolemic patient in whom paramedics thought that rapid fluid therapy was, or might become, necessary. They experienced an overall success rate of 84% and a success-per-attempt rate of 74%. The catheters were placed under normal field conditions. Per preexisting protocols, departure from the scene and transport to the hospital were not delayed for any paramedic interventions, including starting intravenous lines. The 12-gauge catheters can be successfully used by paramedics, both to establish large bore intravenous access prior to arrival at the emergency department and to institute effective fluid therapy where time and circumstances allow.     

Pan-Asian Trauma Outcomes Study (PATOS): Rationale and Methodology of an International and Multicenter Trauma Registry

Background: Trauma is a major health burden and a time-dependent critical emergency condition among developing and developed countries. In Asia, trauma has become a rapidly expanding epidemic and has spread out to many underdeveloped and developing countries through rapid urbanization and industrialization. Most casualties of severe trauma, which results in significant mortality and disability are assessed and transported by prehospital providers including physicians, professional providers, and volunteer providers. Trauma registries have been developed in mostly developed countries and measure care quality, process, and outcomes. In general, existing registries tend to focus on inhospital care rather than prehospital care. Methods: The Pan-Asia Trauma Outcomes Study (PATOS) was proposed in 2013 and initiated in November, 2015 in order to establish a collaborative standardized study to measure the capabilities, processes and outcomes of trauma care throughout Asia. The PATOS is an international, multicenter, and observational research network to collect trauma cases transported by emergency medical services (EMS) providers. Data are collected from the participating hospital emergency departments in various countries in Asia which receive trauma patients from EMS. Data variables collected include 1) injury epidemiologic factors, 2) EMS factors, 3) emergency department care factors, 4) hospital care factors, and 5) trauma system factors. The authors expect to achieve a sample size of 67,230 cases over the next 2 years of data collection to analyze the association between potential risks and outcomes of trauma. Conclusion: The PATOS network is expected to provide comparison of the trauma EMS systems and to benchmark best practice with participating communities.     

Paramedic Use of Needle Thoracostomy in the Prehospital Environment

Objective. The use of prehospital needle thoracostomy (NT) is controversial as it is not without risk. Issues such as inappropriate patient selection, misplacement causing iatrogenic injury, treatment failures in obese patients, anddelaying definitive tube thoracostomy in the emergency department contribute to this controversy. The purpose of this study is to evaluate a cohort of patients undergoing NT by paramedics for tension pneumothorax andreview the indications for use, complications, andemergency department outcomes of NT. Methods. We conducted a retrospective review of patients undergoing NT in the prehospital setting andtransported directly to a Level 1 trauma center over a one-year period. Patients were transported by a single ground transport agency staffed by paramedics. All paramedics were trained to follow uniform protocols for treatment procedures. Variables included indications for NT, patient demographics, prehospital vital signs, injury mechanism, chest X-ray, andEmergency Department outcomes. Results. Paramedics responded to 20,330 advanced life support calls, and39 (0.2%) patients had a NT placed for treatment of tension pneumothorax. Twenty-two (56.4%) patients were in circulatory arrest, with 12 suffering traumatic arrest and10 patients in nontraumatic PEA arrest. The remaining 17 (43.6%) patients were treated for nonarrest causes. Conclusions. The use of NT appears to be a safe procedure when preformed by paramedics in an urban EMS system. Prehospital NT resulted in four cases of unexpected survival.