Monte Carlo dose verification for a single-isocenter VMAT plan in multiple brain metastases

The purpose of this study was to verify the accuracy of dose calculation algorithms of a treatment planning system for a single-isocenter volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT) plan in multiple brain metastases, by comparing the dose distributions of treatment planning system with those of Monte Carlo (MC) simulations. We used a multitarget phantom containing 9 acrylic balls with a diameter of 15.9 mm inside a Lucy phantom measuring 17 × 17 × 17 cm³. Seven VMAT plans were created using the multitarget phantom: 1 multitarget plan (MTP) and 6 single target plans (STP). Three of the STP plans had a large jaw field setting, almost equivalent to that of the MTP, while the other plans had a jaw field setting fitted to each planning target volume. The isocenter for all VMAT plans was set to the center of the phantom. The VMAT dose distributions were calculated using the analytical anisotropic algorithm (AAA) and were also recalculated through Acuros XB (AXB) and MC simulations under the same irradiation conditions. The AAA and AXB methods tended to overestimate dosage compared with the MC method in the MTP and in STPs with large jaw field settings. The dose distribution in single-isocenter VMAT plans for multiple brain metastases was influenced by jaw field settings. Finally, we concluded that MC-VMAT dose calculations are useful for 3D dose verification of single-isocenter VMAT plans for multiple brain metastases.     

螺旋断层放疗在分段全身照射中上下靶区衔接处剂量分布的影响因素研究

目的 选取10例身高在120.0 cm左右的急性白血病患者分上下两段行螺旋断层治疗（HT）实现全身照射（TBI）,通过分析衔接处靶区剂量分布的变化情况,寻找最佳靶区间隔距离所对应的计划设计参数。方法 选取的研究对象使用德国Siemens公司定位CT获得层厚为5 mm的全身图像,同时在髌骨上方10 cm处放置铅丝,作为上下两段靶区的分割线。在美国瓦里安Eclipse 13.5医生工作站进行靶区和危及器官的勾画,其中上下靶区在铅丝分割处依次分别内收不同距离,然后传至HT计划工作站进行计划设计,其中射野宽度（FW）分别选择5.0、2.5、1.0 cm,螺距分别选择0.430与0.287,调制因子1.8,剂量计算网格（最精细：0.195 cm×0.195 cm）,其余计划参数都保持一致。将其分两段照射的上下靶区依据不同参数进行计划设计,并将设计好的不同参数的计划分别对应叠加在一起进行分析衔接处靶区剂量分布的变化情况。结果 通过比较不同螺距和射野宽度所对应不同间隔距离的衔接处靶区的剂量分布,发现只有射野宽度才影响衔接处靶区的剂量分布：当射野宽度为5.0 cm时,靶区间隔距离为5.0 cm在衔接处的剂量分布最佳;同理当射野宽度为2.5和1.0 cm时,靶区间隔距离分别为2.0和1.0 cm时最佳,即衔接处靶区的最佳剂量分布所对应的间隔距离与射野宽度保持一致。而螺距对衔接处靶区剂量和总治疗时间比值没有影响,总治疗时间长度与射野宽度保持一致反比关系。结论 对于HT进行分段式TBI治疗时,采用如上的计划设计参数,同时靶区勾画时间隔距离与射野宽度保持一致,能保证在进行分段TBI治疗时衔接处靶区不会出现剂量冷热点,确保了治疗的精确与安全。在实际临床治疗过程中,为达到治疗效果与效率的平衡,需要选择合适的计划参数。     

Dependence of volume dose indices on dose calculation algorithms for VMAT-SBRT plans for peripheral lung tumor

The purpose of this study was to investigate the dependence of volume dose indices on dose calculation algorithms for volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT) for stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT) plans to treat peripheral lung tumors by comparing them with those of Monte Carlo (MC) calculations. VMAT-SBRT plans for peripheral lung tumors were created using the Eclipse treatment planning system (TPS) for 24 patients with nonsmall cell lung cancer. VMAT dose distributions for gross tumor volume (GTV), internal target volume (ITV), and planning target volume (PTV) were calculated using the analytical anisotropic algorithm (AAA), the Acuros XB (AXB) algorithm, and a MC algorithm. VMAT dose distributions of the 3 algorithms were compared using their volume dose indices from dose volume histograms (DVHs), a dose difference map, and 3-dimensional gamma analysis. The DVHs for GTV and ITV from AAA, AXB, and MC were in good agreement. The difference between the ITV and PTV volume dose indices from AAA and MC increased as D₉₈, D₉₅, D₈₀, D₅₀, and D₂. In particular, the difference between D₉₈ for PTV from AAA and MC was up to 48%. A >5% difference between D₉₅ for PTV from AAA and MC was 11 patients, but only 2 patients for ITV. The volume dose indices for AXB were near those of MC. AAA tended to overestimate the PTV volume dose indices compared to AXB and MC. Thus, we propose that the volume dose indices for the ITV be used because they are independent of dose calculation algorithms.     

Superiority of conventional intensity-modulated radiotherapy over helical tomotherapy in locally advanced non-small cell lung cancer

PURPOSE: To compare helical tomotherapy (HT) and conventional intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) using a variety of dosimetric and radiobiologic indexes in patients with locally advanced non-small cell lung cancer (LA-NSCLC). PATIENTS AND METHODS: A total of 20?patients with LA-NSCLC were enrolled. IMRT plans with 4-6 coplanar beams and HT plans were generated for each patient. Dose distributions and dosimetric indexes for the tumors and critical structures were computed for both plans and compared. RESULTS: Both modalities created highly conformal plans. They did not differ in the volumes of lung exposed to >?20?Gy of radiation. The average mean lung dose, volume receiving ≥?30?Gy, and volume receiving ≥?10?Gy in HT planning were 18.3?Gy, 18.5%, and 57.1%, respectively, compared to 19.4?Gy, 25.4%, and 48.9%, respectively, with IMRT (p?=?0.004, p?相似文献   

3D reconstructions in radiotherapy planning

3D Reconstructions from tomographic images are used in the planning of radiation therapy to study important anatomical structures such as the body surface, target volumes, and organs at risk. The reconstructed anatomical models are used to define the geometry of the radiation beams. In addition, 3D voxel models are used for the calculation of the 3D dose distributions with an accuracy, previously impossible to achieve. Further uses of 3D reconstructions are in the display and evaluation of 3D therapy plans, and in the transfer of treatment planning parameters to the irradiation situation with the help of digitally reconstructed radiographs. 3D tomographic imaging with subsequent 3D reconstruction must be regarded as a completely new basis for the planning of radiation therapy, enabling tumor-tailored radiation therapy of localized target volumes with increased radiation doses and improved sparing of organs at risk. 3D treatment planning is currently being evaluated in clinical trials in connection with the new treatment techniques of conformation radiotherapy. Early experience with 3D treatment planning shows that its clinical importance in radiotherapy is growing, but will only become a standard radiotherapy tool when volumetric CT scanning, reliable and user-friendly treatment planning software, and faster and cheaper PACS-integrated medical work stations are accessible to radiotherapists.     

Dose verification of virtual bolus application for helical tomotherapy

The objective of the study is to verify the dose delivered on helical tomotherapy based on treatment plan with varying virtual bolus (VB) thickness. The target was localized on the ArcCHECK image by 3 mm margin from the phantom surface. The dimension of target, which includes the ArcCHECK's detectors, with the 4.0 cm width and length 12.0 cm along the phantom The 5 treatment plans were generated, 1 plan without VB application (NoVB) and the 4 plans with varying of VB thickness on the phantom surface by 0.5 cm (VB0.5), 1.0 cm (VB1.0), 1.5 cm (VB1.5), and 2.0 cm (VB2.0), in treatment planning but absent during irradiation. For measurement analysis, the ionization chamber and the ArcCHECK detectors were used for point dose and dose distribution by investigating the percentage of dose difference and the gamma passing rate. The VB thickness 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 cm showed acceptable value with less than 2% for dose difference by 0.37% (VB0.5), -0.11% (VB1.0) and -0.37% (VB1.5) at the center of ArcCHECK. The accuracy of dose distribution showed an acceptable gamma passing rate of 99.8% (VB0.5), 100% (VB1.0), and 90.2% (VB1.5) for gamma criteria by 3%/3mm for absolute dose analysis. However, the gamma passing rate of VB2.0 down to 71.2% of absolute mode for gamma criteria by 3%/3mm. The treatment plans with VB thickness less than 15 mm deliver doses that are comparable to treatment plans without virtual bolus based on gamma analysis. However, the deviation showed a trend increasing when VB thickness increased. The VB2.0 was not acceptable for point dose and dose distribution verification by more than 2% dose difference and less than 90% of gamma passing rate.     

Dosimetric errors during treatment of centrally located lung tumors with stereotactic body radiation therapy: Monte Carlo evaluation of tissue inhomogeneity corrections

Early experience with stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT) of centrally located lung tumors indicated increased rate of high-grade toxicity in the lungs. These clinical results were based on treatment plans that were computed using pencil beam–like algorithms and without tissue inhomogeneity corrections. In this study, we evaluated the dosimetric errors in plans with and without inhomogeneity corrections and with planning target volumes (PTVs) that were within the zone of the proximal bronchial tree (BT). For 10 patients, the PTV, lungs, and sections of the BT either inside or within 2 cm of the PTV were delineated. Two treatment plans were generated for each patient using the following dose-calculation methods: (1) pencil beam (PB) algorithm without inhomogeneity correction (IC) (PB ? IC) and (2) PB with inhomogeneity correction (PB + IC). Both plans had identical beam geometry but different beam segment shapes and monitor units (MU) to achieve similar conformal dose coverage of PTV. To obtain the baseline dose distributions, each plan was recalculated using a Monte Carlo (MC) algorithm by keeping MUs the same in the respective plans. The median maximum dose to the proximal BT and PTV dose coverage in the PB + IC plans were overestimated by 8% and 11%, respectively. However, the median maximum dose to the proximal BT and PTV dose coverage in PB ? IC plans were underestimated by 15% and 9%. Similar trends were observed in low-dose regions of the lung within the irradiated volume. Our study indicates that dosimetric bias introduced by unit tissue density plans cannot be characterized as underestimation or overestimation of dose without taking the tumor location into account. This issue should be considered when analyzing clinical toxicity data from early lung SBRT trials that utilized unit tissue density for dose calculations.     

Image-guidance technique comparison on respiratory reproducibility and dose indexes for stereotactic body radiotherapy in lung tumor

We investigated respiratory reproducibility from position errors of gold internal fiducial markers for breath-hold (BH) and real-time tumor tracking (RTT) techniques for stereotactic body radiotherapy in lung tumors. The relationship between position errors and dose indexes was checked for both techniques. The stereotactic body radiotherapy plan in lung tumors was planned for 29 patients. The tumor positioning was arranged using 1.5 mm diameter gold internal fiducial markers. First, CT images were acquired to analyze position errors of gold markers for BH and RTT techniques. The offset plans for both techniques were calculated by displacing the mean position errors. The dose indexes (D98, D95, D2, mean dose) in a planning target volume were evaluated from dose volume histograms for the original plan, BH, and RTT offset plans. The relationship between position errors and dose indexes was analyzed using the root mean square (RMS) for both techniques. For the BH, the RMS was 3.29 mm at the lower lobe. Similarly, it was 1.34 mm for the RTT. The difference for D98 by position error for BH was ?7.0 ± 10.8% at the lower lobe and the difference of all dose indexes for the RTT was less than 1%. The D2 and mean dose for both techniques were nearly the same as those of the original plan. In conclusion, the adaptation of the BH technique should be ≤2 mm RMS. If the position error is >2 mm RMS, the RTT technique should be used instead of the BH technique.     

Creation and evaluation of a concave dose distribution by combining multiple arc fields

To create a concave dose distribution, a partial shielding radiation technique or intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) is usually required. However, in the present study we focused on how to create a concave dose distribution using conventional irradiation techniques. A treatment plan was experimentally created using planning CT scans of the neck. Two target volumes were predefined: planning target volume (PTV) 1, which included macroscopic tumor volume, tonsil, and bilateral retropharyngeal node, and PTV2, which included macroscopic and microscopic tumor volume. The prescribed doses for PTV1 and PTV2 were 66 Gy and 50 Gy, respectively. Nine isocenters, 7 in PTV2 and 2 on the sides of PTV2 were arranged equally spaced. Seven of the 9 arcs were divided in two arcs in order to avoid irradiating the spinal cord and salivary glands. Thus, 9 arcs were used in combination with a field size of 4-5 cm x 9-13 fields. Sixteen Gy was given to each isocenter with 10 MV photons. The plan was compared with a conventional plan (lateral opposing fields with electron boost) by analyzing the dose-volume histogram and dose distributions. The horseshoe-like distribution exceeding 66 Gy becomes conformal to PTV1, and the V95 of PTV1 (volume receiving 95% of the prescribed dose) was compatible with the conventional plan. On the other hand, maximum spinal cord dose decreased from 51 Gy with the conventional plan to 40 Gy with the 9-arc plan, and parotid gland volume (%) irradiated with > 32 Gy was reduced from 99% with the conventional plan to 72% with the 9-arc therapy. Lower normal tissue doses to the spinal cord and salivary gland, while maintaining the target dose, are achieved using the multiple arc plan, and the technique presented may be convenient and useful for facilities that do not yet have full access to IMRT.     

The dosimetric impact of daily setup error on target volumes and surrounding normal tissue in the treatment of prostate cancer with intensity-modulated radiation therapy

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of daily setup error and interfraction organ motion on the overall dosimetric radiation treatment plans. Twelve patients undergoing definitive intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) treatments for prostate cancer were evaluated in this institutional review board–approved study. Each patient had fiducial markers placed into the prostate gland before treatment planning computed tomography scan. IMRT plans were generated using the Eclipse treatment planning system. Each patient was treated to a dose of 8100 cGy given in 45 fractions. In this study, we retrospectively created a plan for each treatment day that had a shift available. To calculate the dose, the patient would have received under this plan, we mathematically “negated” the shift by moving the isocenter in the exact opposite direction of the shift. The individualized daily plans were combined to generate an overall plan sum. The dose distributions from these plans were compared with the treatment plans that were used to treat the patients. Three-hundred ninety daily shifts were negated and their corresponding plans evaluated. The mean isocenter shift based on the location of the fiducial markers was 3.3 ± 6.5 mm to the right, 1.6 ± 5.1 mm posteriorly, and 1.0 ± 5.0 mm along the caudal direction. The mean D95 doses for the prostate gland when setup error was corrected and uncorrected were 8228 and 7844 cGy (p < 0.002), respectively, and for the planning target volume (PTV8100) was 8089 and 7303 cGy (p < 0.001), respectively. The mean V95 values when patient setup was corrected and uncorrected were 99.9% and 87.3%, respectively, for the PTV8100 volume (p < 0.0001). At an individual patient level, the difference in the D95 value for the prostate volume could be >1200 cGy and for the PTV8100 could approach almost 2000 cGy when comparing corrected against uncorrected plans. There was no statistically significant difference in the D35 parameter for the surrounding normal tissue except for the dose received by the penile bulb and the right hip. Our dosimetric evaluation suggests significant underdosing with inaccurate target localization and emphasizes the importance of accurate patient setup and target localization. Further studies are needed to evaluate the impact of intrafraction organ motion, rotation, and deformation on doses delivered to target volumes.     

Influence of Calculation Algorithm on Dose Distribution in Irradiation of Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC)

PURPOSE:. The influence of two different calculation algorithms ("pencil beam" [PB] versus "collapsed cone" [CC]) on dose distribution, as well as the dose-volume histograms (DVHs) of the planning target volume (PTV) and the organs at risk was analyzed for irradiation of lung cancer. MATERIAL AND METHODS:. Between 10/2001 and 02/2002 three-dimensional treatment planning was done in ten patients with lung cancer (Helax, TMS((R)), V.6.01). The PTV, the ipsilateral lung (IL) and the contralateral lung (CL) were defined in each axial CT slice (slice thickness 1 cm). Dose distributions for three-dimensional multiple-field technique were calculated using a PB and a CC algorithm, respectively. Normalization was in accordance with ICRU 50. The DVHs were analyzed relating the minimum, maximum, median and mean dose to the volumes of interest (VOI). RESULTS:. Median PTV amounted to 774 cm(3). Minimum dose within the PTV was 67.4% for CC and 75.6% for PB algorithm (p = 0.04). Using the CC algorithm, only 76.5% of the PTV was included by the 95% isodose, whereas 90.1% was included when the PB algorithm (p = 0.01) was used. Median volume of IL amounted to 1 953 cm(3). Mean dose to IL was 43.0% for CC and 44.0% for PB algorithm (p = 0.02). Median volume of IL within the 80% isodose was 19.6% for CC and 24.1% for PB algorithm (p < 0.01). Median volume of CL amounted to 1 847 cm(3). Mean dose to CL was 17.4% for CC and 18.1% for PB algorithm (p < 0.01). Volume of CL within the 80% isodose was 3.3% for CC and 4.1% for PB algorithm (p = 0.03). CONCLUSION:. The CC and PB calculation algorithms result in different dose distributions in case of lung tumors. Particularly the minimum dose to the PTV, which may be relevant for tumor control, is significantly lower for CC. Since it is generally accepted that the CC algorithm describes secondary particle transport more exactly than PB models, the use of the latter should be critically evaluated in the treatment planning of lung cancer.     

Whole-limb irradiation of the lower calf using a six-field electron technique

The present work demonstrates utilization of electron beam irradiation for the treatment of Kaposi's sarcoma when the full circumference of the lower calf is involved, and when the deep lymphatics are negative for disease. The finite penetration of the electron beam spares deep tissue, preventing the edema associated with photon total limb irradiation. The number of fields with fall-off required to produce a uniform dose to a cylindrical anatomic structure was studied by calculating dose distributions resulting from two-, four-, and six-field techniques for a 5-MeV electron beam and a 9 cm diameter cylinder. The dosimetry and set-up for the six-field technique is demonstrated by a case study. Results show that a six-field electron technique produced a sufficiently uniform dose while remaining relatively easy to set up and use to deliver patient treatment. For the patient case study, dose distributions for the six-field technique showed that (1) the penetration of the 90% dose decreased from 1.5 cm for a single field to approximately 1.0 cm for a 5-MeV beam; (2) the surface dose increased from approximately 70% to 100%, (3) the dose around the circumference of the leg at the depth of 1 cm or less varied from approximately 90% to 120% of the prescribed dose; and (4) the prescribed dose was 2.5 times the maximum central-axis dose from a single field. The six-field treatment was relatively simple to apply and produced an acceptable dose distribution for treatment of Kaposi's sarcoma of the lower calf. This treatment should be applicable to other sites such as the thigh and arms and for other cutaneous diseases such as melanoma.     

Lack of effect of small high-dose volumes on the dose–response relationship for the development of fibrosis in distant parts of the ipsilateral lung in mini-pigs

Purpose : Multi-field radiation therapy for intrathoracic tumours results in a heterogeneous dose distribution in lung tissue. This study investigated whether irradiation of small lung volumes with high fibrogenic doses affects the dose–response relationship for development of fibrosis in distant parts of the ipsilateral lung of mini-pigs. Materials and methods : The whole right lung of 26 ’Mini-Lewe? pigs was irradiated with homogeneous doses of between 25 Gy and 40 Gy given in five equal fractions using opposing anterior–posterior portals and a linear accelerator. Another 32 animals were irradiated with a constant dose of 35 Gy to a small house-shaped high-dose field (base 3.0 cm, height 4 cm) located 3 cm caudolateral to the right hilus, while the surrounding right lung received either no irradiation or homogeneous doses of between 20 Gy and 30 Gy. The radiation fields were simulated and port films were obtained for each of the 10 fields in all pigs. Fibrosis was quantified 9 months after irradiation by determination of the hydroxyproline (HP) content of the 32 high-dose volumes and in the lung apex and the basolateral lung of all 58 pigs. Based on the reference value for the HP-ratio, i.e. the HP-concentration of the right lung over the left lung, obtained in 12 unirradiated control animals, the experimental results were converted into quantal data for probit analysis, a responder being an animal with an HP-ratio > 1.33. Results : A dose–response relationship for the HP-ratio was obtained in the different lung sites and irradiation groups. For a given dose level the mean HP-ratios and response rates did not differ systematically between the lung apex and the basolateral lung. Probit analysis of the pooled data produced ED 50 values of 21.8 Gy (95% CI 12–37) for irradiation without a high-dose volume and 25.9 Gy (24–28) for irradiation with a high-dose volume. These values are not significantly different. The results from both irradiation groups could be well fitted by a common dose–response curve with an ED 50 value of 26.1 Gy. Unexpectedly, the response rates in the high-dose volume increased with increasing dose to the surrounding right lung. Analysis of the port films provided an explanation for this finding: inaccuracies in daily field positioning. When this error was corrected for by use of the mean dose to the high-dose volume, a dose–response curve with an ED 50 of 25.2 Gy (22–29) was determined for the high-dose volume. Conclusions : The results of the study indicate that the irradiation of a small lung volume with high fibrogenic doses does not affect the dose–response relationship for development of fibrosis in distant parts of the ipsilateral lung.