Predicting employees' well‐being using work–family conflict and job strain models

The present study examined the effects of two models of work–family conflict (WFC) and job‐strain on the job‐related and context‐free well‐being of employees. The participants of the study consisted of Iranian employees from a variety of organizations. The effects of three dimensions of the job‐strain model and six forms of WFC on affective well‐being were assessed. The results of hierarchical multiple regression analysis revealed that the number of working hours, strain‐based work interfering with family life (WIF) along with job characteristic variables (i.e. supervisory support, job demands and job control) all make a significant contribution to the prediction of job‐related well‐being. On the other hand, strain‐based WIF and family interfering with work (FIW) significantly predicted context‐free well‐being. Implications are drawn and recommendations made regarding future research and interventions in the workplace. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Work–Family Conflict and Job Satisfaction: Emotional Intelligence as a Moderator

The negative impact of work–family conflict (WFC) on employees' well‐being and job‐related outcomes has attracted much research attention recently. A major gap in the literature is which factors could potentially buffer its negative effect on employees. The present study examined the moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the relationship between WFC and job satisfaction in a sample of 212 Chinese high school teachers. On the basis of conservation of resource theory, we hypothesized that emotional intelligence would weaken the negative effect of family‐to‐work and work‐to‐family interference on job satisfaction. Results suggested that WFC (work‐to‐family interference and family‐to‐work interference) was negatively related to job satisfaction and that emotional intelligence weakened the effect of WFC on job satisfaction. These findings provide implications for theories on WFC and emotional intelligence, such as conservation of resource theory. The current study also provides a test of these theories in Chinese culture to support the generalizability of theories developed in previous research. Practical implications for reducing the negative influence of WFC on employees' job satisfaction are also provided, such as the potential value of emotional intelligence for the training and development of employees in teaching professions. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Three‐wave Study of Antecedents of Work–Family Enrichment: The Roles of Social Resources and Affect

On the basis of conservation of resources theory (Hobfoll, 1989 ) and the resource‐gain‐development perspective (Wayne, Grzywacz, Carlson, & Kacmar, 2007 ), this paper examines the differential impact of specific social resources (supervisory support and family support) on specific types of affect (job satisfaction and family satisfaction, respectively), which, in turn, influence work‐to‐family enrichment and family‐to‐work enrichment, respectively. A sample of 276 Chinese workers completed questionnaires in a three‐wave survey. The model was tested with structural equation modelling. Job satisfaction at time 2 partially mediated the relationship between time 1 supervisory support and time 3 work‐to‐family enrichment (capital), and the effect of supervisory support on work‐to‐family enrichment (affect) was fully mediated by job satisfaction. Family satisfaction at time 2 fully mediated the relationship between time 1 family support and time 3 family‐to‐work enrichment (affect, efficiency). Implications for theory, practice and future research are discussed. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

How does family support facilitate job satisfaction? Investigating the chain mediating effects of work–family enrichment and job‐related well‐being

While a direct relationship between family support and job satisfaction has received empirical support, few work–family studies have examined how family support leads to job satisfaction. Drawing on the work–home resources model, we investigate the chain mediating roles of work‐to‐family enrichment (WFE), family‐to‐work enrichment (FWE), and job‐related well‐being on the relationship between family support and job satisfaction. Based on data collected from 439 social workers across Australia, structural equation modeling results revealed that the chain mediating effects of WFE and job‐related well‐being were supported. Our findings emphasize the important combination of work–family enrichment and job‐related well‐being in helping employees to harness support from their family members to achieve job satisfaction. We discuss both the theoretical and practical implications of the WFE, FWE, and job‐related well‐being mechanisms underlying the family support–job satisfaction relationship.     

Gender,work‐based support and family outcomes

Work‐based support has effects on family outcomes (Thompson, Kirk, & Brown, Stress and Health, 2005, 21, 199–207), suggesting that the effects of work‐based support are transmitted to the family environment through some mediating mechanism. This study examines two potential mediating mechanisms, emotional exhaustion and work interference with family (WIF). It was expected that women would report higher levels of work support, and work support would have a stronger relationship with outcomes for women. Gender as a moderator of the relationships between work support, and emotional exhaustion, WIF, and family environment (family cohesion, family conflict) was tested via regression analyses. Eighty‐one males (43.3 per cent) and 106 females (56.7 per cent), and their spouse/partners participated in the study. Women reported higher levels of coworker support than men, and support from supervisors predicted WIF only for women. Gender did not moderate the work support—family environment relationship. WIF, but not emotional exhaustion, mediated the relationship between supervisor and coworker support, and employee reports of family cohesion. Spouse/partner reports of family environment were not predicted by the study variables. Thus, work support reduces employee negative perceptions of the family environment through reduced work–family stress, and the impact is similar for men and women. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Investigating the Relative Importance of Individual Differences on the Work–Family Interface and the Moderating Role of Boundary Preference for Segmentation

This study examines the relative importance of individual differences in relation to perceptions of work–family conflict and facilitation, as well as the moderating role of boundary preference for segmentation on these relationships. Relative importance analyses, based on a diverse sample of 380 employees from the USA, revealed that individual differences were consistently predictive of self‐reported work–family conflict and facilitation. Conscientiousness, neuroticism, negative affect and core self‐evaluations were consistently related to both directions of work–family conflict, whereas agreeableness predicted significant variance in family‐to‐work conflict only. Positive affect and core self‐evaluations were consistently related to both directions of work–family facilitation, whereas agreeableness and neuroticism predicted significant variance in family‐to‐work facilitation only. Collectively, individual differences explained 25–28% of the variance in work–family conflict (primarily predicted by neuroticism and negative affect) and 11–18% of the variance in work–family facilitation (primarily predicted by positive affect and core self‐evaluations). Moderated regression analyses showed that boundary preference for segmentation strengthened many of the relationships between individual differences and work–family conflict and facilitation. Implications for addressing the nature of work and family are discussed. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Work–Family Interface as a Mediator between Job Demands and Employee Behaviour

In this investigation, we draw from the job demands–resource model and conservation of resources theory to examine the relationship between job demands, the work–family interface and worker behaviours. Data collected from an online survey of workers revealed that hindrance demands indirectly increase interpersonal and organizational deviance through work interference with family and family interference with work. Challenge demands indirectly predict interpersonal and organizational deviance through work interference with family. Finally, hindrance demands indirectly decreased individual‐directed organizational citizenship behaviours through work‐to‐family enrichment. Taken together, these results stress the relevance of job demand management and resource drain/acquisition to counterproductive and extra‐role behaviours. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Does loyalty protect Chinese workers from stress? The role of affective organizational commitment in the Greater China Region

The aim of this research was to test the direct and moderating effects of affective organizational commitment (AOC) on the work stressors—job satisfaction relationship among employees in the Greater China Region. A self‐administered survey was conducted to collect data from three major cities in the region, namely Beijing, Hong Kong and Taipei (n = 380). Three most important work stressors were assessed: heavy workload, lack of work autonomy and interpersonal conflict. We found that both work stressors and AOC were related to job satisfaction. Specifically, heavy workload, lack of autonomy and interpersonal conflict were negatively related to job satisfaction; whereas, AOC had a positive relation with job satisfaction. Furthermore, AOC moderated the interpersonal conflict—job satisfaction and the lack of autonomy—job satisfaction relationships. The present study thus found joint effects of work stressors and AOC (as buffers) on work attitudes among Chinese employees in the Greater China Region, encompassing three sub‐societies of mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Emergence of Family‐specific Support Constructs: Cross‐level Effects of Family‐supportive Supervision and Family‐Supportive Organization Perceptions on Individual Outcomes

Implicit to the definitions of both family‐supportive supervision (FSS) and family‐supportive organization perceptions (FSOP) is the argument that these constructs may manifest at a higher (e.g. group or organizational) level. In line with these conceptualizations, grounded in tenants of conservation of resources theory, we argue that FSS and FSOP, as universal resources, are emergent constructs at the organizational level, which have cross‐level effects on work–family conflict and turnover intentions. To test our theoretically derived hypotheses, a multilevel model was examined in which FSS and FSOP at the unit level predict individual work‐to‐family conflict, which in turn predicts turnover intentions. Our hypothesized model was generally supported. Collectively, our results point to FSOP serving as an explanatory mechanism of the effects that mutual perceptions of FSS have on individual experiences of work‐to‐family conflict and turnover intentions. Lagged (i.e. overtime) cross‐level effects of the model were also confirmed in supplementary analyses. Our results extend our theoretical understanding of FSS and FSOP by demonstrating the utility of conceptualizing them as universal resources, opening up a variety of avenues for future research. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Moderating Role of Acculturation in a Mediation Model of Work–Family Conflict among Chinese Immigrants in New Zealand

This study examined the antecedents of work–family conflict (WFC) and the mediation effects of WFC on well‐being consequences among Chinese immigrants to New Zealand, along with the moderating role of acculturation. Four types of WFC were explored: time‐based and strain‐based work interference with family, and time‐based and strain‐based family interference with work. Data were collected from 577 Chinese immigrants in New Zealand, who had full‐time or part‐time work and lived with family members in New Zealand. The four types of WFC were differentially related to the antecedents and well‐being consequences, providing some evidence that both Chinese and New Zealand cultures may exert influences on Chinese immigrants' experiences of WFC. Both directions of WFC (work interference with family, and family interference with work) were related to job satisfaction and family satisfaction, and strain‐based WFC influenced their well‐being more than time‐based WFC. Most importantly, we found immigrants who were proficient in English perceived greater WFC and psychological strain. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Investigating the work–family conflict and health link: Repetitive thought as a mechanism

Research is needed to investigate mechanisms linking work–family conflict to poor health in working adults. We took a novel approach to build on extant studies by testing a potential mechanism in these associations – repetitive thought. Data came from a sample of 203 partnered working adults. There were significant direct effects of work–family conflict with lower life satisfaction, positive affect, and perceived health as well as greater fatigue. As for total effects, work–family conflict was significantly associated with all health outcomes – life satisfaction, positive affect, negative affect, fatigue, perceived health, and chronic health conditions – in the expected directions through repetitive thought. This study provides support that repetitive thought is one potential mechanism of how work–family conflict can take a toll on psychological and physical health. Findings are discussed in relation to improving workplace policies to improve the health of working adults managing work–family conflict.     

‘Workaholism’ and potential outcomes in well‐being and health in a cross‐occupational sample

This study examined ‘workaholism’ components (work involvement, drive, enjoyment of work) and potential outcomes in terms of psychological well‐being and health. A sample of 661 Norwegian cross‐occupational employees from six different organizations completed an online questionnaire measuring ‘workaholism’, job satisfaction, life satisfaction, insomnia and subjective health complaints. A short version of the Norwegian‐translated Workaholism Battery showed significant relationships with reports of psychological well‐being and subjective health. Enjoyment of work was positively associated with job and life satisfaction and negatively associated with symptoms of poor health. Work involvement and drive were the strongest predictors of job dissatisfaction. Both were positively related to symptoms of poor health. Drive was, in addition, negatively associated with life satisfaction. The results showed that it is important to discriminate between different ‘workaholic’ features when investigating associations between ‘workaholism’ and potential outcomes, which were related in predictable ways to outcomes in terms of psychological well‐being and health. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Differential Reactivity and the Within‐person Job Stressor–Satisfaction Relationship

An experience sampling methodology was used to study the direct and conditional within‐person relationship between job stressors and job satisfaction. One hundred and one full‐time administrative staff completed momentary measures of job stressors and job satisfaction three times a day on six different workdays over a 3‐week period (N = 1818 observations). Multilevel random coefficients models were specified, and the results suggest that within‐person stressors are negatively related to within‐person job satisfaction. These results stand when controlling for the effects of time, demographics, work characteristics, baseline levels of job stressors and satisfaction, and between‐person effects of job stressors. Furthermore, consistent with the differential reactivity model, the results suggest that the observed within‐person stressors–satisfaction relationship is conditional upon locus of control and positive affect. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Preference awareness education as stress management training for academic staff

This paper describes a response directed stress management intervention (SMI) in the form of a Jungian based preference awareness education (PAE). It uses the Insights System of personality types to increase awareness of behaviour and communication preferences of self and different others. Eighteen self‐recruited academic employees participated for 7 weeks and received feedback about work preferences and personality type. The aim was to reduce perceptions of stress and interpersonal stress and to increase feelings of job satisfaction and interpersonal satisfaction. The data were analysed using two‐tailed t‐tests. No significant findings were observed for the total sample after training, however, interesting results were found for certain sub‐sample groups. Extravert‐thinking types, reported decreased stress levels (p > 0.018), and participants suffering high stress/interpersonal stress pre‐PAE, reported decreased stress levels (p > 0.010–0.018). Participants suffering low job/interpersonal satisfaction pre‐PAE, reported increased job satisfaction (p > 0.015–0.016). These results suggest that individuals who report high levels of stress and dissatisfaction are most likely to benefit from this type of intervention. Future PAE research might: (a) use pilot studies to meet the intervention preferences of employees that are reluctant to participate in SMIs; (b) include a wait‐list control group; use: (c) a follow up education/measures; (d) and organizational level (stressor directed) SMIs at the same time as response directed initiatives. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Linking household income and work–family conflict: a moderated mediation study

Research on the work–family interface has not often explored the role of structural characteristics such as income in the associations among work stressors, work–family conflict and family stressors. The goal of this study was to examine household income as a moderator of the relations among these variables. Results from a nationally (US) representative sample of 1472 employed individuals who were married with children indicate that the relations between work‐to‐family interference and family strain were stronger for individuals with lower household incomes than for those with higher household incomes. Furthermore, family strain was more strongly associated with family‐to‐work interference for individuals in low‐income households. Household income did not moderate other relations examined in the study. Potential explanations for these moderating effects are discussed, along with their implications for the generalizability of findings in the work–family literature across contexts. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Job satisfaction, work ability and life satisfaction among Finnish anaesthesiologists

BACKGROUND: Organizational changes and relative growth of the ageing population together with related health problems seem to have increased stressfulness in the work of anaesthesiologists. However, little is known about their work-related well-being and the factors through which their situation could be improved. METHODS: A cross-sectional questionnaire study of the level and the determinants of job satisfaction, work ability and life satisfaction among female and male anaesthesiologists involved 258 Finnish anaesthesiologists working full time (53% men). RESULTS: The respondents had fairly high job satisfaction, work ability and life satisfaction. No gender differences appeared in these well-being indicators, but their determinants differed by gender. Job satisfaction was only associated with work-related factors in both genders: with job control in women and with job control and organizational justice in men. Work ability correlated with job control and health in both genders and with family life in women. Life satisfaction correlated with individual- and family related factors such as social support and family problems in both genders. Life satisfaction correlated with physical workload in men and health in women. Women had less job control, fewer permanent job contracts and more domestic workload than men. CONCLUSIONS: Job control and organizational justice were the most important determinants in work-related well-being. Work-related factors were slightly more important correlates of well-being in males, and family life seems to play a larger role in the well-being of female anaesthesiologists. Organizational and gender issues need to be addressed in order to maintain a high level of well-being among anaesthesiologists.     

When work strain transcends psychological boundaries: an inquiry into the relationship between time pressure,irritation, work–family conflict and psychosomatic complaints

Against the theoretical background of the effort–recovery model and the action regulation theory, the author presents a cross‐sectional questionnaire study testing hypotheses about the relationship between work‐related time pressure, cognitive and emotional irritation, work–family conflict and psychosomatic complaints. Subjects were 576 female home care nurses. Results of a path analysis show that the relation of time pressure and psychosomatic complaints is partially mediated by experiencing a work–family conflict; also the relation of time pressure and work–family conflict is partially mediated by cognitive and emotional irritation. It is argued that cognitive and emotional irritation are fruitful concepts for a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between work stressors and the development of strain‐based work–family conflict. Implications for the prevention of work–family conflict are outlined. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

What happens at home does not stay at home: The role of family and romantic partner conflict in destructive leadership

Why leaders behave the way they do is of considerable importance. Our goal in this research was to understand how family‐to‐work conflict and romantic relationship conflict influence two different forms of destructive leadership, namely, abusive supervision and passive leadership. To do so, we invoke the conservation of resources theory. One hundred twenty‐three leader–follower dyads participated. Leaders completed questionnaires on their own family‐to‐work conflict and romantic relationship conflict, depressive symptoms, and cognitive distraction. Their followers rated their abusive supervision and passive leadership. With the use of Hayes's PROCESS program, depressive symptoms mediated the effects of family‐to‐work conflict and romantic relationship conflict on abusive supervision, whereas cognitive distraction mediated the effects of family‐to‐work conflict on passive leadership. Implications and several directions for further research are offered.     

Work hours and work-family conflict: the double-edged sword of involvement in work and family

In this study, we examine the role of work hours in a model that incorporates involvement in both work and family with experiences of work-family conflict and subjective well-being. Self-report data were collected from 383 full-time employees and analysed using structural equation modelling techniques. Results demonstrate that role salience was positively related to behavioural involvement with work and with family. In turn, behavioural family involvement was negatively related to work hours and family-to-work conflict, while behavioural work involvement was positively related to work hours. Behavioural family involvement was also positively related to life satisfaction. Finally, both family-to-work conflict and end-of-workday strain were negatively related to life satisfaction. Our results provide insight into unexpected problems that might arise when employees place overly high importance on work and work long hours. This study serves as a foundation for researchers to examine the interplay of time spent with work and family with other aspects of the work-family interface.     

Path analysis of work conditions and work–family spillover as modifiable workplace factors associated with depressive symptomatology

Background: Literature pertaining to the relationship between workplace factors and depression has been compartmentalized: work conditions, family conditions, and work–family balance have been studied separately as predictors of depressive symptoms but not concurrently. Objective: Work conditions and work–family spillover were considered concurrently as modifiable workplace factors associated with depressive symptomatology, while controlling for confounding socio‐economic factors. Methods: This cross‐sectional study involved 218 female health care workers who completed a survey assessing work conditions [Effort–Reward Imbalance (ERI) scale and Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ)], work–family balance (work–family spillover scale), sociodemographic information, and depressive symptoms [Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES‐D) scale]. Results: Path analysis supported the presence of a direct relationship between depressive symptoms and high effort–reward imbalance, high negative work–family spillover, low positive family‐to‐work spillover, and low education. The indirect effect of low support from work was mediated by negative work‐to‐family spillover and high effort–reward imbalance. The indirect effect of high effort–reward imbalance was mediated by increased negative work‐to‐family spillover. The indirect effect of having children 18 years or younger was mediated by decreased positive family‐to‐work spillover. An indirect effect of low education was mediated by high effort–reward imbalance and high negative work‐to‐family spillover. Conclusions: The association between work conditions and depressive symptomatology is mediated by increased negative work‐to‐family spillover. The impact of having young children is mediated by decreased positive family‐to‐work spillover. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.