Relationship between the audiogram and the duration of the tone measuring the threshold

Summary In addition to the data on intensity-duration curves of the threshold tones, the threshold audiograms are constructed for the different durations of the threshold measuring tone. The durations 0.5; 2; 5; 20; 100 and 850 msec and frequencies 200, 500, 1000, 2000, 3000, and 5000 cps were used. Even when the duration of the testing tone is so short that this tone becomes a noise, the pattern of an audiogram in cases of normal hearing has some resemblance to the typical audiogram. But the great remoteness of the point for 1000 cps from the minimum zone draws attention. As the duration of the testing becomes longer, the audiogram of a person with normal hearing is gradually transforrned from a V-shaped curve with a sharp minimum into a typical curve with an elongated minimum zone, and the point for 1000 cps shifts from the left ascending branch of the audiogram to the center of the minimum zone. Several audiograms are obtained for 2 patients with a partial hearing loss, resulting from growing age, and 1 patient with a severe hearing loss of traumatic origin. Peculiar changes in these audiogram could be clearly seen at the least durations of the testing tone used. The diminishing of absolute threshold, when the tone duration is prolonged from 100 to 850 msec, is less for the listeners with impaired hearing.(Presented by Academician V. N. Chernigovskii) Translated from Byulleten' Éksperimental'noi Biologii i Meditsiny, Vol. 54, No. 10, pp. 21–26, October 1962.     

Counterpointing the functional role of the forebrain and of the brainstem in the control of the sleep-waking system

This paper reviews the lifetime contributions of the author to the field of sleep-wakefulness (S-W), reinterprets results of the early studies, and suggests new conclusions and perspectives. Long-term cats with mesencephalic transection show behavioral/polygraphic rapid eye movement sleep (REMS), including the typical oculo-pupillary behavior, even when the section is performed in kittens prior to S-W maturation. REMS can be induced as a reflex. Typical non-rapid eye movement S (NREMS) is absent and full W/arousal is present only after a precollicular section. The isolated forebrain (IF) rostral to the transection exhibits all features of W/arousal and NREMS [with electroencephalographic (EEG) spindles and delta waves], arousal to olfactory stimuli, and including the appropriate oculo-pupillary behaviors. These features also mature normally after neonatal transection. REMS is absent from the IF. After deprivation there is NREMS pressure and rebound in the IF, but the decerebrate cat only shows pressure for REMS. Most IF reactions to pharmacologic agents are within expectations, except for the tolerance/withdrawal effects of long-term morphine use which are absent. In contrast, these effects are supported by the brainstem (i.e. seen in the decerebrate cat). In cats with ablation of the telencephalon, or diencephalic cats, delta waves are absent in the thalamus. EEG thalamic spindle waves are seen triggering S for only 4-5 days after ablation. Therefore, true NREMS is absent in chronic diencephalic cats although pre- and postsomniac behaviors persist. These animals are hyperactive and show a pronounced, permanent insomnia; however, a low dose of barbiturate triggers a dramatic REMS/atypical NREMS rebound. Cats without the thalamus (athalamic cats), initially show a dissociation between behavioral hyperactivity/insomnia and the neocortical EEG, which for 15-20 days exhibits only delta and slower oscillations. Fast, low-voltage W rhythms appear later on, first during REMS, but spindle waves and S postures are absent from the start, such that these cats also display only atypical NREMS. Athalamic cats also show barbiturate-sensitive insomnia. Cats with ablation of the frontal cortices or the caudate nuclei remain permanently hyperactive. They also show a mild, but significant hyposomnia, which is permanent in afrontal cats, but lasts for about a month in acaudates. The polygraphic/behavioral features of their S-W states remain normal. We conclude and propose that: (a) the control of the S-W system is highly complex and distributed, but is organized hierarchically in a well-defined rostro-caudal manner; the rostral-most or highest level (telencephalon), is the most functionally complex/adaptative and regulates the lower levels; the diencephalic/basal forebrain, or middle level, has a pivotal role in inducing switching between S and W and in coordinating the lowest (brainstem) and highest levels; (b) W can occur independently in both the forebrain and brainstem, but true NREMS- and REMS-generating mechanisms exist exclusively in the forebrain and brainstem, respectively; (c) forebrain and brainstem S-W processes can operate independently from each other and are preprogrammed at birth; this helps understanding normal and abnormal polygraphic/behavioral dissociations in humans and normal dissociations/splitting in aquatic mammals; (d) NREMS homeostasis is present in the IF, but only REMS pressure after deprivation persists in the decerebrate cat; (e) the thalamus engages in both NREMS and W; (f) insomnia in diencephalic cats is the result of an imbalance between antagonistic W- and S-promoting cellular groups in the ventral brain (normally modulated by the telencephalon); (g) the EEG waves, which are signature for each S-W state, appear to truly drive the concomitant behaviors, e.g. a hypothetical human IF could alternate between behavioral NREMS and W/arousal/awareness; (h) a role for REMS is to keep the individual sleeping at the end of the self-limiting NREMS periods. The need for accelerating research on telencephaling NREMS periods. The need for accelerating research on telencephalic S-W processes and downstream control of the lower S-W system levels is emphasized.     

Effects of the lesion of the postcommissural part of the septum on the behavior of the rat.

The effects of the lesion of the postcommissural part of the septum on behavior of the rat has been studied. Results may be summarized as follows. An increase in the exploratory behavior in the open field which decreases rapidly; a decrease in the number of defecations in this test and a decrease in time leaving a dark environment for exploration. In the shuttle box test, no facilitation of the acquisition, but a permanent and quite significant increase in the intertrial activity has been found. We conclude that the lesions tend to decrease the emotivity of the subjects. An interpretation on the basis of the species -- specific defensive reactions explains the transitory and permanent effects of the lesions on the spontaneous activity.     

Relationship between the thyrotrophic function of the hypophysis and the neurosecretion in the pigeon

Summary Gonad function is depressed and thryoid function activated in male pigeons under conditions of intensive growth of feathers. At the same time the discharge of neurosecretion into the blood from the posterior lobe of the hypophysis becomes stimulated and the entrance of a new secretion into the area of the median eminence of the neurohypophysis is intensified.Increased vascularization and hyperemia are seen in the anterior lobe of the hypophysis; in such conditions the formation of new typical basophils is enhanced. A reciprocal relationship between the thyroid gland function and the concentration of its hormone in the organism is realized through the activation of the neurosecretory and thyrotropic functions.Translated from Byulleten' Éksperimental'noi Biologii i Meditsiny, Vol. 56, No. 10, pp. 82–85, October, 1963     

On the development of the sympathetic chain and the adrenal medulla in the mouse

Summary The first visible primordia of the sympathetic chain appear in the anterior thoracic region and run caudally through 8 segments in an embryo of 11 gestation days. At 12 gestation days the trunk reaches from the base of the skull into the sacral region. During the following days the trunk develops into ganglia with interganglionic fibers.At 16 gestation days there is a well developed trunk with a cranial ganglion cervicale superior and a ganglion stellatum in the anterior part of the thoracic region. In the remaining sympathetic chain there are segmentally arranged ganglia but in this common pattern large differences are noticed.At the 13th gestation day the first signs of the adrenal medulla and the splanchnic plexus appear in the form of sympathoblasts ventral to the sympathetic chain. The migration of sympathoblasts into the primordia of the adrenal cortex goes on for 3 days while the migration to the splancnic plexus in the mesenchym ventral and lateral to the aorta goes on at least 2 more days.     

Characteristics of the topographic interrelation of the head of the pancreas and the duodenum and pathology of the organs of the pancreatoduodenal area

Seventy pancreatoduodenal complexes of 55 patients with chronic pancreatitis and tumours of this zone and 15 patients died from other diseases are studies histotopographically . The pieces of the pancreatic head tissue in the medial wall of the duodenum were found in 12 cases of the first group and in 4 control cases. The pancreatic tissue consisted either of all elements of this organ or cystically dilated ducts and seemed to infiltrate different layers of the duodenum wall. Three variants of the pancreatic head structure are suggested on the basis of anatomo-topographical interrelationships of the pancreatic head and duodenum. In 12 out of 14 cases chronic pancreatitis and carcinoma of organs of this zone were combined with the variants of the pancreatic head structure, in 2 cases there was a true heterotopy . Pathogenetic significance of these variants for the development of chronic pancreatitis is discussed.     

The measurements of the clivus, the foramina on the external base of the skull and the superior vertebrae

Anatomical measurements are made on the clivus and the upper cervical column. These values are important for transoral, transpalatinal approaches to the clivus and to atlas and axis. The mean-values of the length of clivus in adults were 45 mm on the internal cranial base, on the external the length between the basion and the vomer was estimated with 27.9 mm, the tuberculum pharyngeum is situated on our material 11.2 mm rostral of the basion. The anterior part of clivus in the external cranial base has a width of 22.5 mm, the posterior part has one of 42.8 mm. Included are measurements of the hypoglossal canal and measurements of foramen lacerum externum. The postnasal enlargement of the most portals of the cranial base is given in Fig. 5. The occipital condyles are 22.9 mm in length, the angle between the condyles was 51.4 degrees. The thickness of clivus was 18.3 mm in a level 28 mm rostral of basion and 9.3, 11 mm rostral of basion. Given are also the thickness of substantia corticalis of clivus and the area of posterior wall of sphenoid sinus. Measured are also the distances between dens axis and anterior arch of atlas and basion. The height of anterior arch was found larger than by other researchers. Included are length and width values of the upper cervical column and the insertion areas of the longus capitis and rectus capitis anterior muscles.     

General types of relationships between the development of the organism and the development of the subsystems of the organism

There are elementary and complex types (combined elementary types): of temporospatial relations between the pattern of development of the organism and the patterns of development of individual subsystems; of influences exercised by the development of the organism upon the development of the subsystems of the organism; of influences exercised by the development of individual subsystems upon individual development; of temporospatial relations between the stability of the line of individual development and the stability of the line of development of individual subsystems; of mutual influence between the stability and variation of the line of individual development, on the one hand, and the stability and variation of the line of development of the individual subsystems, on the other.     

Adequate function of the cell: Interactions between the needs of the cell and the needs of the organism

The continuous maintenance of cell adequate function (cellular stress) is considered to be the main feature which characterizes the activity of a live cell. In accordance with the concept of cellular stress, the transition of the cell to the state of adequate funcitoning represents a dual commitment. The cell must function adequately to respond to the demands of the organism and to provide for its own needs. Thus, it is proposed that two systems exist for the regulation of the adequate function of the cell: one enabling the cell to respond to the demands of the organism, and the other providing for the needs of the cell itself. The hormonal system of the organism represents the first of these mechanisms, and I believe that another system exists for regulation of intracellular needs. Adequate function of the cell is determined by the regulative, controlling and defense mechanisms. The balance between the needs of the cell and of the organism should be a concern of physician, since it provides for the optimal function and health of the organism as a whole.     

Anatomical relationship between the morphology of the styloid process of the ulna and the attachment of the radioulnar ligaments

The radioulnar ligaments are the major stabilizers of the distal radioulnar joint under dynamic loading; however, anatomical detail regarding their attachment on the middle and distal thirds of the styloid process of the ulna remains unclear. Because previous anatomical studies included only old cadavers, their anatomical findings might not reflect the morphological features of younger and healthy specimens. This study investigated the anatomical features of the distal ulna, particularly the styloid process, to determine the attachment of the radioulnar ligaments to the styloid process and verified their direction and attachment to the styloid process in younger and healthy donors using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). We investigated the morphological features of the distal ulna of 12 cadaveric wrists using micro-computed tomography (micro-CT). We also visualized and measured the distribution of the cortical bone thickness. We histologically analyzed three specimens in the axial plane and macroscopically analyzed seven specimens to examine the attachment of the radioulnar ligaments to the styloid process. In addition, we evaluated five wrists from living volunteers using 3.0 Tesla MRI. The distal ulna has a ridge on the dorsoradial aspect of the styloid process that corresponds to the attachment of the radioulnar ligaments. Micro-CT images after data processing revealed that the cortical thickness of the dorsoradial quadrant was thicker than that of the other quadrant at the proximal slice of the styloid process (p < 0.01), and that of the dorsoulnar (p = 0.021) and ulnopalmar (p < 0.01) quadrants at the middle slice. Histological analyses showed that the radioulnar ligaments were attached to the middle and distal thirds of the styloid process via chondral-apophyseal entheses. The direction of the fiber was dorsal in the middle third of the styloid process and changed to palmar in the distal third of the styloid process. The direction and attachment of the radioulnar ligaments on the styloid process were confirmed using MRI for younger and healthy participants. The radioulnar ligaments were attached to the dorsoradial ridge of the styloid process, which was confirmed by cortical bone thickening, histology at the attachment sites, and in vivo MR imaging. The directions of the radioulnar ligaments sterically intersected, which would satisfy both slipping stability and rotational mobility. These anatomical findings may provide the basis for biomechanical consideration of distal radioulnar joint stabilization.     

The Beauty of the Network in the Brain and the Origin of the Mind in the Control of Behavior

Behavior is not adequately described as a stimulus-response process. It is initiated by the animal and is generated because of its expected outcome in the future. The outcome can be good or bad for the animal. The brain is in charge of the selection process. This is the basic function of the brain. Taking Drosophila as a study case, this paper discusses initiating activity, several examples of outcome expectations, trying out (the internal search for a suitable behavior), chaining of actions, and the functional roles of chance in action selection. It takes mental processes and states such as goals, intentions, feelings, memories, cognition, and attention as higher levels of behavioral control that have their origin in biological evolution.     

Influence of the level of the transmembrane potential on the dynamics of the extinction of the amplitude of the synaptic reactions of the snail under voltage clamping conditions

The influence of the level of the transmembrane potential on the dynamics of the extinction of the amplitudes of summary excitatory postsynaptic currents arising in identified giant parietal neurons in response to rhythmic stimulation of the intestinal nerve was investigated in a preparation of the isolated CNS of the common snail in order to identify the possibility of the participation of the postsynaptic element in synaptic plasticity. It was demonstrated that, at a greater value of the transmembrane potential, the decrease in the amplitudes of the postsynaptic currents which have been induced by rhythmic stimulation takes place more rapidly. It was also demonstrated that at a higher frequency of stimulation of the nerve, the effect of the influence of the membrane potential level on the dynamics of the synaptic reactions is more prominent. The data obtained may be regarded as an argument in favor of the possibility of the participation of the post-synapse in plasticity. This study was partially supported by the Russian Basic Research Fund (project No. 94-04-12209). Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow. Translated from Zhurnal Vysshei Nervnoi Deyatel'nosti imeni I. P. Pavlova, Vol. 45, No. 1, pp. 171–179, January–February, 1995.     

On the role of the cerebral cortex in the functional interrelationships between the mammary gland and the digestive system

Summary The contractile function of all the portions of the multilocular stomach of ruminants enhances in stimulation of the gland receptors. Phenomena of external inhibition of the mentioned reactions were revealed. By combining mechanical stimulation of the mammary gland receptors with conditioned sound stimulus (bell) it was possible to obtain conditioned reflex changes of the contractile function of the reticulum, paunch, omasum and abomasum. The mentioned reactions are subject to extinctive and differential inhibition. Consequently, an important role in the functional interrelation of the mammary gland and digestive system belongs to the cortex of the large cerebral hemi spheres.(Presented by Academician V. N. Chernigovskii) Translated from Byulleten' Éksperimental'noi Biologii i Meditsiny Vol. 54, No. 12, p. 22–25, December, 1962     

Characteristics of the influences of the centrum medianum of the thalamus on the neuronal activity of the caudate nucleus

The specific character of the relationship of the baseline cellular activity of the caudate nucleus to the features of the impulse activity of the centrum medianum of the thalamus has been identified in chronic microelectrode experiments. Reciprocal changes in the bioelectrical activity were recorded in the first group of cells, with a low action potential repetition frequency, while unidirectional changes with reorganizations in the intralaminar nucleus were recorded in the second. The activation of the cells of the centrum medianum of the thalamus was accompanied during the formation of an instrumental conditioned defense reflex by the formation of a pattern of impulse activity in neurons of the neostriatum which coincided in sign with the reorganizations which were characteristic during the investigation of the baseline activity. It is hypothesized that the features of the internal structure of the caudate nucleus underlie such a relationship. Laboratory of Physiology of Higher Nervous Activity, I. P. Pavlov Institute of Physiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Saint Petersburg. Translated from Fiziologicheskii Zhurnal imeni I. M. Sechenova, Vol. 80, No. 1, pp. 102–108, January, 1994.     

臼杯边缘与髋臼骨性边缘位置关系影像解剖学研究

目的　利用影像资料构建骨盆三维模型,探究臼杯边缘与髋臼骨性边缘的解剖位置关系,辅助全髋关节置换术中徒手臼杯定位。 方法　选取正常髋臼及Crowe Ⅱ/Ⅲ型DDH患者髋臼的CT断层图像,使用三维规划软件BOHOLO模拟全髋关节置换术植入目标臼杯（方位：前倾角20 °,外展角40 °,骨床-臼杯覆盖率＞75%）,在右侧髋臼的1、4、7、10点钟4个方向,测量臼杯外露长度即臼杯边缘与髋臼骨性边缘的距离,并作统计分析。 结果　对于正常髋臼及Crowe Ⅱ/Ⅲ型DDH髋臼,臼杯目标方位的垂直高度分别为（16.26±0.93）mm,（22.09±4.10）mm;各方向髋臼边缘外露长度,髋臼正常组与DDH组有统计学差异（P＜0.05）,正常髋臼后下壁（右髋7点钟,左髋5点钟）的外露长度为（9.71±1.68）mm,变异度较小,不同性别、年龄无明显差异。 结论　髋臼后下壁的外露长度可作为正常臼杯定位相对恒定的解剖学参照,据此原位重建臼杯可获得满意的骨床-臼杯覆盖率,而对于Crowe Ⅱ/Ⅲ型患者,各向髋臼骨缘外露长度的变异较大。     

On the development of the pyramidal tract in the rat

Summary An anterograde tracer study has been made of the developing corticospinal tract (CST) in the rat using wheat germ agglutinin-conjugated horseradish peroxidase (WGA-HRP). Analysis of normal Rager stained material revealed that corticospinal axons reach upper cervical spinal cord levels at the day of birth (PO). Postnatal rats ranging in age from one (P1) to fourteen (P14) days received multiple WGA-HRP injections into the cortex of their left hemisphere and were allowed to survive for 24 h. The first labeled CST fibers caudally extend into the third thoracic spinal cord segment at P1; into the eighth thoracic segment at P3; into the first or second lumbar segment at P7 and into the second to third sacral segment at Pg. Thus the outgrowth of the leading pioneer fibers of the CST is completed at P9 but later developing axons are continuously added even beyond P9. Quantitative analysis of the amount of label along the length of the outgrowing CST revealed a characteristic pattern of labeling varying with age. The most striking features of that pattern are: (1) the formation of two standing peaks at the level of the cervical and lumbar enlargements respectively and (2) the transient presence of a smaller running peak which moves caudally with the front of the outgrowing bundle. The standing peaks are ascribed to the branching of the axon terminals at both intumescences, whereas the running peak probably arises by the accumulation of tracer within the growth cones at the tips of the outgrowing CST axons. Factors such as the number of axons, the varying axon diameters, the branching collaterals, the presence of varicosities, the transport rate of the tracer, the uptake of the tracer at the injection site, which possibly may affect the amount of label present in both the entire bundle and in the individual axons are discussed. Current research is focused upon an analysis of the relation between the site of injection within the cortex and the pattern of labeling of the CST. A delay of two days was found between the arrival of the CST axons at a particular spinal cord level and their outgrowth into the adjacent spinal gray. However, combined HRP and electronmicroscopic experiments are necessary to determine the factors behind the maturation of the CST as well as the maturation of the spinal gray.     

On the origin of the so-called tumorlets of the lung

A light and electron microscopic study of multiple tumorlets in a 66 year old female is presented. Clinically the patient had had chronic obstructive lung disease with bronchiectasis of the right upper lobe. Aside from severe bronchiectatic alterations, the resected lobe showed typical tumorlets. On electron microscopic study, these were shown to consist of cells containing large numbers of a neurosecretory type of granule, which was identical to those present in the bronchial counterpart of the intestinal argentaffin (Kulchitsky) cell, as well as in pulmonary carcinoid and oat cell carcinoma cells. Our studies suggest the possibility of a histogenetic relationship between tumorlets, bronchial carcinoid tumors, and oat cell carcinoma, the cell of origin in each case being the bronchial counterpart of the intestinal argentaffin cell.     

Asymmetry of the internal connections of the striate cortex of the cat in the projection zone of the center of the field of vision

Studies were carried out on the organization of the internal connections of the striate cortex in cats in the projection zone of the center (0–5°) of the field of vision by microintophoretic application of horseradish peroxidase to electrophysiologically identified orientational columns. The area containing neurons showing retrograde labeling in most cases extended in the mediolateral direction. Labeled cells were located in the upper (II, III) and lower (V, VI) layers of the cortex, and the shapes and orientations of the areas containing labeled neurons in these layers coincided. Spatial asymmetry was detected in the distribution of labeled neurons relative to the orientational column studied. Labeled cells were located predominantly medial to the columns, regardless of the distance from the projection of the area centralis. Considering the visuotopical map of field 17, the asymmetry detected here provides evidence that neurons in orientational columns have more extensive connections with neurons of the peripheral part of the cortex. An asymmetrical distribution of “silent” zones around the receptive fields of neurons in orientational columns is suggested, and that these appear to receive influences from the periphery of the visual field. Laboratory of Visual Physiology and Laboratory of Central Nervous System Morphology, I. P. Pavlov Institute of Physiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 6 Makarov Bank, 199034 St. Petersburg, Russia. Translated from Fiziologicheskii Zhurnal imeni I. M. Sechenova, Vol. 82, No. 12, pp. 23–29, December, 1996.     

Anatomical evidence for the epididymis as the prime mover in the evolution of the scrotum

Extensive investigation of the sensitivity of the descended testis to abdominal temperature, and of its thermo-regulation by the scrotum, has so far failed to explain the adaptive significance of the scrotal state. The present viewpoint, derived primarily from comparative anatomical and from experimental studies, suggests a different line of reasoning – that descent into a scrotum has been influenced primarily by the need for migration of the cauda epididymidis to this cooler location; testicular descent is seen as a merely mechanistic event which enables the cauda epididymidis to project from the body, but has no significance for the biological function of the testis as such. The possibility that some advantage derived by the sperm-storage region of the epididymis has been a prime determinant in the evolution of the scrotum is suggested by at least three anatomical features. This is indicated firstly by the relationship of testis and cauda epididymidis to each other in cryptorchid and in scrotal species. In natural cryptorchids (e.g., many insectivores and hystricomorph rodents) which express the transitional stage in testicular descent, the cauda generally precedes the testis within the cremasteric sac, thereby lying closest to the integument. In the scrotum, the disposition of the cauda epididymidis ensures that it occupies the coolest site there also. A second consideration concerns the curious course traced by the Wolffian duct in cryptorchid and scrotal mammals; for its diversionary route along and beyond the border of the testis would seem illogical and unnecessary were descent into a scrotum related solely to the function of the testis. This U-shaped disposition of the duct, which retraces its course from the acute flexure of the cauda, is seen here as a device which permits the cauda epididymidis to occupy a cooler site, whether this be subintegumental or scrotal. Thirdly, although evidenced to different degrees and not in all species, a variety of scrotal features, e.g., a circumscribed hormonally-determined baldness, exaggerated dartos responsitivity and, occasionally, black pigmentation of the peri-caudal surface, as well as the presence of a fat pad between cauda and testis, each appear to favor controlled cooling of the caudal epididymidis. In no animal, by contrast, does the form of the scrotum and the disposition of its content seem designed for preferential cooling of the testis. These considerations do not explain the adaptive significance of the scrotum or the reasons for its variable occurrence among mammals. However, with a few exceptions found particularly amongst marine mammals, a scrotum characterizes polygynous species in which a dominant male achieves all or most of the fertile matings in a large group, and also those known to engage in multiple ejaculatory coitus with one female. Conversely, our limited knowledge of their habits notwithstanding, the frequency of sexual interaction for the males of most ascrotal species would appear to be relatively low. In light of its suggested relationship to the function of the cauda epididymidis, the possibility is raised that the scrotal state may be linked to the sexual capacity of the male, in particular the ability to produce fertile ejaculates repeatedly within a limited period of time.