Influenza myocarditis and pericarditis

The true incidence of influenza myocarditis in the general population is unknown, because of the variable clinical presentation and the absence of a established noninvasive diagnostic test that can confirm the diagnosis. Influenza is, however, one of the frequently implicated viruses caused myocarditis as well as Coxsackie B, adenovirus, echovirus and cytomegalovirus. The clinical manifestations of viral myocarditis vary greatly from asymptomatic electrocardiographic changes to fulminant heart failure with fatal arrhythmias. We should recognize that subtle cardiac symptoms and signs in many subclinical cases may be overshadowed by systemic manifestations of the underlying influenza infection. Although specific therapy consisted of anti-viral agents, intravenous gamma-globulin treatment or mechanical ventricular supports may be available for influenza myocarditis, it has not been established that the myocarditic process itself will be favorably affected.     

A morphological analysis of the specimens obtained during endomyocardial biopsies in patients with a clinical diagnosis of dilated cardiomyopathy]

The authors summarize experience gained with a study of biopsy specimens obtained on endomyocardial biopsies from 88 patients with a clinical diagnosis of dilated cardiomyopathy. The diagnostic value of the study was equal to 70%. Dilated cardiomyopathy largely masked myocarditis and alcoholic cardiomyopathy which were diagnosed morphologically in 30 and 13% of the patients, respectively. No morphological alterations which would allow one to change the clinical diagnosis of dilated cardiomyopathy were discovered in 26% of cases. It has been shown that endomyocardial biopsy is an important tool of diagnosis. In order to introduce it on a broader scale, it is necessary that quantitative uniform criteria for the diagnosis of endomyocardial diseases, primarily myocarditis, be elaborated.     

Endocarditis and myocarditis: a brief review

Endocarditis and myocarditis are conditions seen worldwide with considerable morbidity and mortality. Despite the improvements in diagnostic technologies, clinical diagnosis remains crucial as only prompt recognition will lead to appropriate investigations and timely intervention, which may be life saving. In this review, the authors provide a concise overview of endocarditis and myocarditis.     

Diagnosis and Treatment of Viral Myocarditis

Myocarditis, an inflammatory disease of heart muscle, is an important cause of dilated cardiomyopathy worldwide. Viral infection is also an important cause of myocarditis, and the spectrum of viruses known to cause myocarditis has changed in the past 2 decades. Several new diagnostic methods, such as cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, are useful for diagnosing myocarditis. Endomyocardial biopsy may be used for patients with acute dilated cardiomyopathy associated with hemodynamic compromise, those with life-threatening arrhythmia, and those whose condition does not respond to conventional supportive therapy. Important prognostic variables include the degree of left and right ventricular dysfunction, heart block, and specific histopathological forms of myocarditis. We review diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for the treatment of viral myocarditis. English-language publications in PubMed and references from relevant articles published between January 1, 1985, and August 5, 2008, were analyzed. Main keywords searched were myocarditis, dilated cardiomyopathy, endomyocardial biopsy, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, and immunotherapy.ACCF/AHA/ESC = American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association/European Society of Cardiology; CK-MB = creatine kinase—MB isoenzyme; DCM = dilated cardiomyopathy; ECMO = extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; EF = ejection fraction; LV = left ventricular; LVEF = left ventricular ejection fraction; MRI = magnetic resonance imaging; PCR = polymerase chain reactionMyocarditis is an important and often unrecognized cause of dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM). It is defined as inflammation of the heart muscle that may be identified by clinical or histopathologic criteria. Recent developments in the diagnosis and treatment of patients with suspected myocarditis include improved histologic criteria and use of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The aim of this review is to provide a contemporary evidence-based approach to evaluation and treatment of patients with suspected myocarditis. Main keywords searched are as follows: myocarditis, dilated cardiomyopathy, endomyocardial biopsy, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, and immunotherapy. Articles were screened on the premise of importance, quality, and relevance.     

Diagnosis of myocarditis by endomyocardial biopsy

Endomyocardial biopsy is most frequently used to establish a definitive diagnosis of myocarditis, especially since this disorder has been treated with immunosuppressive therapy. Recent diagnostic criteria (the "Dallas Classification") are reviewed, and pitfalls and limitations are discussed.     

Frontiers of COVID-19-related myocarditis as assessed by cardiovascular magnetic resonance

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. In some patients, COVID-19 is complicated with myocarditis. Early detection of myocardial injury and timely intervention can significantly improve the clinical outcomes of COVID-19 patients. Although endomyocardial biopsy (EMB) is currently recognized as the ‘gold standard’ for the diagnosis of myocarditis, there are large sampling errors, many complications and a lack of unified diagnostic criteria. In addition, the clinical methods of treating acute and chronic COVID-19-related myocarditis are different. Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) can evaluate the morphology of the heart, left and right ventricular functions, myocardial perfusion, capillary leakage and myocardial interstitial fibrosis to provide a noninvasive and radiation-free diagnostic basis for the clinical detection, efficacy and risk assessment, and follow-up observation of COVID-19-related myocarditis. However, for the diagnosis of COVID-19-related myocarditis, the Lake Louise Consensus Criteria may not be fully applicable. COVID-19-related myocarditis is different from myocarditis related to other viral infections in terms of signal intensity and lesion location as assessed by CMR, which is used to visualize myocardial damage, locate lesions and quantify pathological changes based on various sequences. Therefore, the standardized application of CMR to timely and accurately evaluate heart injury in COVID-19-related myocarditis and develop rational treatment strategies could be quite effective in improving the prognosis of patients and preventing potential late-onset effects in convalescent patients with COVID-19.     

心脏磁共振成像对急性冠状动脉综合征表现为主的病毒性心肌炎的诊断价值

目的探讨心脏磁共振成像对急性冠状动脉综合征表现为主的病毒性心肌炎的诊断价值。材料与方法收集2013年1月至2016年12月黔江中心医院心内科收治冠状动脉造影阴性的高度疑似急性病毒性心肌炎患者16例及缺血性心脏病患者5例入选本研究,行心电门控的心脏磁共振检查,扫描序列包括T2加权成像、Turbo FLASH序列、早期钆强化及延迟钆强化序列,收集数据并统计分析。结果采用心脏磁共振成像检查对急性冠状动脉综合征表现为主的高度疑似病毒性心肌炎和同期缺血性心脏病以路易斯湖标准为基础的影像学评分比较显示,与对照组比较,延迟钆强化序列、T2加权成像和路易斯湖标准总评分显著增加,差异具有统计学意义(P=0.021、0.011、0.002);受试者工作特征曲线显示,路易斯湖标准总评分的最佳截断值为6.12,敏感性为93.8%,特异性为80.0%,与Turbo FLASH序列、早期钆强化率、延迟钆强化序列、T2加权成像比较,路易斯湖标准总评分的诊断效能比较均衡;延迟钆强化指标的特异性为100%,T2WI的敏感性为93.8%。结论路易斯湖标准对于急性冠状动脉综合征表现为主的病毒性心肌炎具有无创影像学鉴别价值,同时延迟钆强化序列具有较高的特异性,T2加权成像具有较高的敏感性,可用于缺血性心脏病的鉴别诊断。     

Diagnosis of early myocarditis after respiratory or gastrointestinal tract viral infection: insights from cardiovascular magnetic resonance

Background  

The diagnosis of myocarditis continues to be a challenging task in clinical practice. The purpose of our study was to investigate cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnostic workup of ambulatory patients with the suspicion of early myocarditis after respiratory or gastrointestinal tract viral infection. The need for accurate diagnosis of early myocarditis arises from the low diagnostic accuracy of routine clinical tests.     

儿童多系统炎症综合征最新研究进展

儿童多系统炎症综合征（MIS-C）于2020年4月由英国儿科医师首次报道,是一种与严重急性呼吸综合征冠状病毒2（SARS-CoV-2）感染相关、可引起多系统损害的疾病,其表现与其他儿童炎症综合征的临床特征有重叠,包括川崎病、中毒性休克综合征和巨噬细胞激活综合征等。MIS-C的发展与SARS-CoV-2感染密切相关,在大多数情况下,可以认为是继发于病毒感染后的异常免疫反应,类似于成人感染SARS-CoV-2数日后出现的症状。目前用于诊断MIS-C的标准很可能过于宽泛,这意味着或会纳入患有不同疾病的患儿。该病好发于较大年龄儿童,这与川崎病多见于5岁以下儿童有明显的不同。MIS-C主要表现为持续高热、明显的消化道症状、血流动力学不稳定、心肌炎及炎症指标升高等。由于MIS-C的发病机制尚未清楚,目前采用不同的治疗手段,虽尚无特异性的治疗方法,但整体预后良好。目前仍需要进行大量的研究来提高临床医师对MIS-C的认识水平,明确其对儿童健康的真正影响,并阐明最佳的诊断和治疗方法以及真正的预后。     

Virus infection of the heart--unmet therapeutic needs

For over 50 years, viral infection has been recognized as an important trigger of acute myocarditis, inflammatory dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and congestive heart failure. Nevertheless, viral heart disease remains challenging to diagnose and treat. Improved diagnostic methods for myocarditis have led to a better understanding of its pathophysiology. The recognition of virus-mediated damage, inflammation and autoimmune dysregulation in these patients highlights the importance of differentiating between virus-positive and virus-negative inflammatory DCM. These insights have led to the development of novel treatment strategies, including intravenous immunoglobulin and interferon therapy for virus-positive patients. This article will focus on the pathogenesis of viral myocarditis, especially parvovirus B19-induced, its progression to inflammatory DCM and future treatment strategies.     

Immune reconstitution

Immune reconstitution in HIV-infected patients remains a potential mechanism to explain delayed disease progression and increased survival following suppressive therapy. Many discrepancies remain to be studied. Is an immune response to HIV protective? Why are anti-HIV CD4 responses lost so quickly in progressors and how can they be restored? What is the damage to the immune system that occurs early in disease and why can it not be overcome by simply controlling viral replication? Will management of immune reconstitution be used in future adjunct treatment strategies (vaccine or STI)? Because HAART is not the answer to long-term management of HIV throughout the world, the recovery of immune function and it's potential to control viral replication remains a key goal in the long-term management of HIV-infected persons.     

Acute fulminant viral myocarditis

Two cases of viral myocarditis resulting in early death are presented. The acute fulminant form of viral myocarditis occurs infrequently but is significant as it often involves neonates, adolescents and young adults, frequently with poor outcome. Prompt diagnosis is based on a high index of suspicion and is essential for optimal recovery. However the presence of abdominal pain as a major symptom may delay diagnosis. The clinical course and management of this form of viral myocarditis is discussed.     

Flow cytometry and immune thrombocytopenic purpura

Although Immune thrombocytopenic purpura is a common disorder that family physicians, internists and hematologists face in their everyday practice, its diagnosis rests only on “exclusion” and its therapy is based on algorithms where “trial and error” is the rule.Flow cytometry, if simplified and standardized, could provide a quicker and better diagnostic accuracy.Studies of the lymphocyte subset using flow cytometry and more elaborate immune studies are paving the way for a better understanding of the disease and in identification of prognostic markers. Such studies may even help stratify the first-line therapy responder and assist in the use of the arsenal of immune suppressive therapy with better precision.     

Established and novel treatment options in acute myocarditis,with or without heart failure

Introduction: Acute myocarditis is a disorder characterized by an unpredictable clinical course which ranges from asymptomatic, incidentally discovered forms, to cases with fulminant course and adverse outcome. The most challenging issues in the context of acute myocarditis are the appearance of difficult to treat heart failure in the acute phase and the potential progression in the long-term to dilated cardiomyopathy.

Areas covered: With respect to available treatment options in acute myocarditis, in the absence of specific guidelines, management is supportive and overall empirical, especially for the oligo- or asymptomatic patients with preserved ejection fraction. Haemodynamically instable patients should be treated in referral centers with capability of advanced cardiopulmonary support. Patients with heart failure but without haemodynamic impairment should be treated according to the heart failure guidelines. Endomyocardial biopsy may be performed in an individualized basis both for diagnostic purposes and to guide treatment, based on the detection or not of viral genome.

Expert commentary: Apart from the already established treatments, novel therapies against several targets are currently investigated and are expected to contribute to a more efficacious management options in the future. Increased awareness among medical professionals is essential for the early diagnosis and best care of acute myocarditis patients.     

Masks of subacute infectious endocarditis

AIM: Formulation of approaches to differential diagnosis and treatment policy for subacute infectious endocarditis (SIE) when it is masked by another monoorganic or systemic disease. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The course of SIE was analysed in 132 patients of whom 74(56%) had erroneous admittance diagnoses. Rheumocarditis was not confirmed in 34 patients, 24 patients had nonspecific reactions masking SLE (4 cases), glomerulonephritis (7 cases), myocarditis (4 cases), hemorrhagic vasculitis, nodular periarteritis, polymyositis (9 cases). RESULTS: The "masks" made the SIE diagnosis more difficult, resulted in late or invalid treatment--monotherapy with steroid hormones, in particular. This complicated the diagnostic process and aggravated the disease course. CONCLUSION: To detect SIE it is necessary besides analysis of case record and symptoms to performe echocardiography in dynamics, because of possible late development of valvular defect. High-dose antibiotic therapy is justified for diagnosis of ex juvantibus when the diagnosis remains controversial.     

血清心肌肌钙蛋白Ⅰ对小儿病毒性心肌炎临床诊断价值的探讨

目的探讨病毒性心肌炎患儿血清肌钙蛋白I（cTnI）水平的变化及诊断价值。方法对我院收治的病毒性心肌炎患儿45例入院后2～4h、15d抽取静脉血,对其血清中cTnI和肌酸磷酸激酶同工酶（CK-MB）浓度进行测定,同时观察其水平变化。结果血清中cTnI和CK-MB均升高,在评价心肌损伤的特异性、敏感度方面,cTnI优于CK-MB。结论血清cTnI水平可反映病毒性心肌炎患儿心肌损伤程度,是一个理想的标志物,可作为诊断小儿病毒性心肌炎的主要诊断指标。     

黄芪注射液与能量合剂治疗急性病毒性心肌炎疗效观察

目的：观察黄芪注射液与能量合剂治疗急性病毒性心肌炎的疗效。方法：将急性病毒性心肌炎患者５７例随机分为治疗组和对照组。治疗组３６例给予黄芪注射液和维生素Ｃ；对照组２１例给予维生素Ｃ和能量合剂。结果：治疗组在改善临床症状、心电图及左心室功能方面均优于对照组（Ｐ均＜０．０５）。结论：黄芪注射液治疗急性病毒性心肌炎能提高临床疗效，调节机体免疫功能，保护受病毒感染的心肌细胞，清除自由基，是治疗急性病毒性心肌炎的一种有效措施     

肺炎支原体感染282例误诊文献分析

目的探讨肺炎支原体（mycoplasma pneumonia,MP）感染的误诊原因,以提高诊断率。方法检索2007年1月-2011年12月中国期刊全文数据库、维普数据库、万方医学数据库中MP感染误诊相关文献,对命中的11篇282例MP感染误诊病例的临床资料进行复习,分析误诊原因。结果282例均以发热、呼吸道症状为主要表现,部分患者有循环、消化、神经、泌尿及血液系统等多种表现。误诊疾病达20余种,从多到少依次为细菌或病毒性肺炎、上呼吸道感染、病毒性心肌炎、病毒性脑炎、支气管炎、急性胃肠炎、肺结核、败血症、贫血、肾炎、伤寒、腹泻原因待查、病毒性肝炎、类风湿关节炎、肾病综合征、自身免疫性溶血性贫血、过敏性紫癜、荨麻疹、急性淋巴结炎、胆囊炎及猩红热,误诊时间3d～6个月,中位误诊时间11d。所有病例按误诊疾病治疗效果差,完善相关实验室检查或行诊断性治疗后确诊为MP感染,经大环内酯类药物治疗痊愈。11篇文献中5篇报道误诊率。为20．0％-64．3％,平均误诊率为24．9％。结论MP感染既可能被误诊为由细菌、病毒、结核菌等病原体引发的感染,也可能被误诊为某些免疫性疾病。掌握正确诊断思维方法、重视实验室检查、施以规范诊断性治疗,有助于减少误诊。     

Pediatric myocarditis: presenting clinical characteristics

Objective

The objective of the study was to characterize the clinical profiles of pediatric patients with acute myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) before diagnosis.

Methods

A retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted to identify patients with myocarditis and DCM who presented over a 10-year span at 2 tertiary care pediatric hospitals. Patients were identified based on the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, diagnostic codes.

Results

A total of 693 charts were reviewed. Sixty-two patients were enrolled in the study. Twenty-four (39%) patients had a final diagnosis of myocarditis, and 38 (61%) had DCM. Of the 62 patients initially evaluated, 10 were diagnosed with myocarditis or DCM immediately, leaving 52 patients who required subsequent evaluation before a diagnosis was determined. Study patients had a mean age of 3.5 years, 47% were male, and 53% were female. Common primary complaints were shortness of breath, vomiting, poor feeding, upper respiratory infection (URI), and fever. Common examination findings were tachypnea, hepatomegaly, respiratory distress, fever, and abnormal lung examination result. Sixty-three percent had cardiomegaly on chest x-ray, and all had an abnormal electrocardiogram results.

Conclusions

These data suggest children with acute myocarditis and DCM most commonly present with difficulty breathing. Myocarditis and DCM may mimic other respiratory or viral illnesses, but hepatomegaly or the finding of cardiomegaly and an abnormal electrocardiogram result may help distinguish these diagnoses from other more common pediatric illnesses.